Freshwater blooms of cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in source waters are generally composed of several different strains with the capability to produce a variety of toxins. The major exposure routes for humans are direct contact with recreational waters and ingestion of drinking water not efficiently treated. The ultra high pressure liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry based analytical method presented here allows simultaneous analysis of 22 cyanotoxins from different toxin groups, including anatoxins, cylindrospermopsins, nodularin and microcystins in raw water and drinking water. The use of reference standards enables correct identification of toxins as well as precision of the quantification and due to matrix effects, recovery correction is required. The multi-toxin group method presented here, does not compromise sensitivity, despite the large number of analytes. The limit of quantification was set to 0.1 μg/L for 75% of the cyanotoxins in drinking water and 0.5 μg/L for all cyanotoxins in raw water, which is compliant with the WHO guidance value for microcystin-LR. The matrix effects experienced during analysis were reasonable for most analytes, considering the large volume injected into the mass spectrometer. The time of analysis, including lysing of cell bound toxins, is less than three hours. Furthermore, the method was tested in Swedish source waters and infiltration ponds resulting in evidence of presence of anatoxin, homo-anatoxin, cylindrospermopsin and several variants of microcystins for the first time in Sweden, proving its usefulness.

The concentrations of Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr, Mn, Co, As, and Se were determined in the abdominal muscle and hepatopancreas from raw and cooked crayfish of Astacus astacus (L.) and Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana), both of Swedish origin. After cooking, the concentrations of Cd, Ni, and Co in the hepatopancreas showed a decrease and the concentrations of Pb, Cu, and Mn in the abdominal muscle showed an increase. Metal and metalloid concentrations were also determined in the abdominal muscle and hepatopancreas of commercially caught and cooked crayfish, including Astacus leptodactylus (Esch.) and Procambarus clarkii (Girard), from China, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, and USA. Most of the elements showed little variation except for cadmium in the abdominal muscle of P. leniusculus from California, which was markedly higher (mean = 0.082 mg/kg) than the others (mean = 0.004 mg/kg). Metal and metalloid concentrations in hepatopancreas varied greatly within as well as between countries. In the hepatopancreas from P. leniusculus from a Swedish lake the manganese concentrations were markedly higher than in any other crayfish. The intake of cadmium from crayfish inhabiting uncontaminated waters will be low if the hepatopancreas is not consumed.

A survey of moulds and mycotoxins was performed on 99 rice samples taken from the Swedish retail market. The main objective was to study the mould and mycotoxin content in basmati rice and rice with a high content of fibre. Samples of jasmine rice as well as long-grain rice were also included. The samples were analysed for their content of ochratoxin A (high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)), aflatoxin B(1), B(2), G(1), and G(2) (HPLC, RIDA(R)QUICK), and mould (traditional cultivation methods in combination with morphological analysis). The majority of samples were sampled according to European Commission Regulation 401/2006. Subsamples were pooled and mixed before milling and both mould and mycotoxin analyses were performed on milled rice. The results showed that the majority of basmati rice (71%) and many jasmine rice samples (20%) contained detectable levels of aflatoxin B(1) (level of quantification = 0.1 microg aflatoxin kg(-1) rice). Two samples of jasmine rice and ten basmati rice samples contained levels over the regulated European maximum limits of 2 microg kg(-1) for aflatoxin B(1) or 4 microg kg(-1) for total aflatoxins. Aspergillus was the most common mould genus isolated, but also Penicillium, Eurotium, Wallemia, Cladosporium, Epicoccum, Alternaria, and Trichotecium were found. The presence of Aspergillus flavus in 21% of the samples indicates that incorrect management of rice during production and storage implies a risk of mould growth and subsequent production of aflatoxin. Rough estimates showed that high rice consumers may have an intake of 2-3 ng aflatoxin kg(-1) bodyweight and day(-1) from rice alone. This survey shows that aflatoxin is a common contaminant in rice imported to Europe.

The present study aimed at gaining more knowledge of the growth of aflatoxigenic moulds and aflatoxin production in Brazil nuts in relation to humidity conditions and storage time. For this purpose, the growth of aflatoxigenic moulds and the increase in aflatoxin levels in Brazil nuts was studied in the laboratory at temperature and humidity conditions that are relevant for the Amazon region. Fresh unprocessed Brazil nuts in shell were inoculated with an aflatoxin producing strain of Aspergillus nomius previously isolated from Brazil nuts. The nuts were stored at 27 °C in combination with 97, 90 or 80% surrounding relative humidity in a respirometer for up to 3 months. The General Linear Model (GLM) was used for evaluation of the effect of water activity and time on aflatoxigenic mould levels and on aflatoxin levels, as well as the relationship between mould and aflatoxin levels. During storage at the highest relative humidity (97%) aflatoxin formation occurred rapidly, whereas storage at 90% relative humidity resulted in slower aflatoxin formation. At the lowest relative humidity (80%), aflatoxin formation occurred sporadically during storage. The increase in mould and aflatoxin levels along the production chain is also described, using field data collected in the state of Para, Brazil. The growth of aflatoxigenic moulds and aflatoxin formation increased rapidly between 40-90 days following collection of the nuts, before the nuts reached the final drying stage at the processing plant. In addition, a logistic regression model predicting the probability that the European legislative limit of 4 µg/kg for aflatoxins in nuts will be exceeded in relation to colony counts of either one selected aflatoxigenic mould strain (laboratory experiments) or of a mixture of aflatoxigenic strains (field data) was developed. The probability that total aflatoxin levels will exceed the European legislative limit of 4 µg/kg increased rapidly from approx. 30% to above 80% for both experimental and field samples at mould levels between 2 and 3 log cfu/g.