This study represents the first description of whale sharks, Rhincodon typus, occurring at a provisioning site in Oslob, Cebu, Philippines. Frequent observations of sharks are often difficult, even at tourism sites, giving rise to provisioning activities to attract them. The present study provides repeated longitudinal data at a site where daily provisioning activities took place, and whale sharks were present every day. A total of 158 individual whale sharks were photographically identified between Mar 2012 and Dec 2013, with 129 males (82%), 19 females (12%) and 10 (6%) of undetermined sex. Mean estimated total length was 5.5 m (±1.3 m S.D.). Twenty individuals were measured with laser photogrammetry to validate researchers’ estimated sizes, yielding a good correlation (r2 = 0.83). Fifty-four (34%) individuals were observed being hand-fed by local fishermen (provisioned), through in-water behavioural observations. Maximum likelihood methods were used to model mean residency time of 44.9 days (±20.6 days S.E.) for provisioned R. typus contrasting with 22.4 days (±8.9 days S.E.) for non-provisioned individuals. Propeller scars were observed in 47% of the animals. A mean of 12.7 (±4.3 S.D.) R. typus were present in the survey area daily, with a maximum of 26 individuals (Aug 10 2013) and a minimum of 2 (Dec 6 2012). Twelve (8%) individuals were seen on at least 50% of survey days (n = 621), with a maximum residency of 572 days for one individual (P-396). Twenty four individuals were photographically identified across regional hotsposts, highlighting the species’ migratory nature and distribution. Extended residency and differences in lagged identification rates suggest behavioural modification on provisioned individuals, underlying the necessity for proper management of this tourism activity.

While shark-based tourism is a rapidly growing global industry, there is ongoing controversy about the effects of provisioning on the target species. This study investigated the effect of feeding on whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) at a provisioning site in Oslob, Cebu, in terms of arrival time, avoidance and feeding behaviour using photo-identification and focal follows. Additionally, compliance to the code of conduct in place was monitored to assess tourism pressure on the whale sharks. Newly identified sharks gradually arrived earlier to the provisioning site after their initial sighting, indicating that the animals learn to associate the site with food rewards. Whale sharks with a long resighting history showed anticipatory behaviour and were recorded at the site on average 5 min after the arrival of feeder boats. Results from a generalised linear mixed model indicated that animals with a longer resighting history were less likely to show avoidance behaviour to touches or boat contact. Similarly, sequential data on feeding behaviour was modelled using a generalised estimating equations approach, which suggested that experienced whale sharks were more likely to display vertical feeding behaviour. It was proposed that the continuous source of food provides a strong incentive for the modification of behaviours, i.e., learning, through conditioning. Whale sharks are large opportunistic filter feeders in a mainly oligotrophic environment, where the ability to use novel food sources by modifying their behaviour could be of great advantage. Non-compliance to the code of conduct in terms of minimum distance to the shark (2 m) increased from 79% in 2012 to 97% in 2014, suggesting a high tourism pressure on the whale sharks in Oslob. The long-term effects of the observed behavioural modifications along with the high tourism pressure remain unknown. However, management plans are traditionally based on the precautionary principle, which aims to take preventive actions even if data on cause and effect are still inconclusive. Hence, an improved enforcement of the code of conduct coupled with a reduction in the conditioning of the whale sharks through provisioning were proposed to minimise the impacts on whale sharks in Oslob.

Background. Provisioning is a growing practice used to facilitate wildlife-tourist interaction, especially with elusive marine species, but still little is known about its effect on the host species. This work discusses the practice, effect and proposed measures to manage the whale shark provisioning activities and related tourism industry in the waters of Oslob, Philippines. Methods. Since March 2012, the research team has been studying daily the whale shark population, the tourism industry and its compliances with the local and national laws. During 443 days of survey, 135 individual whale sharks where identified within the interaction area, 197h of shark behavioral observations and tourist compliance surveys have been collected along with 45 biopsy samples, 1000h of dive profiles from TDR tags and 500 tourist satisfaction questionnaires. Results. Since its official opening in January 2012 more than 140,000 interaction tickets have been sold bringing over 1M USD to the local community and making it one of the largest marine wildlife tourist attractions in South East Asia. The benefits for the community and regional economy are undeniable, however behavioral modification, extended residency time, poor nutritional value of provided food and thermal stress related to the extended permanence in shallow water together with habitat destruction caused by poor diving practices and unregulated coastal developments are some of the quantified side effects of this industry. Conclusion. A series of meeting with the stakeholders and an education campaign have been initiated as bottom up approach and an adaptive management model based on the identification of the limits of acceptable change is being developed in collaboration with the Authorities to address current limitations in the long-term sustainable management of the whale shark watching industry in Oslob.

Background. Provisioning is a growing practice used to facilitate wildlife-tourist interaction, especially with elusive marine species, but still little is known about its effect on the host species. This work discusses the practice, effect and proposed measures to manage the whale shark provisioning activities and related tourism industry in the waters of Oslob, Philippines. Methods. Since March 2012, the research team has been studying daily the whale shark population, the tourism industry and its compliances with the local and national laws. During 443 days of survey, 135 individual whale sharks where identified within the interaction area, 197h of shark behavioral observations and tourist compliance surveys have been collected along with 45 biopsy samples, 1000h of dive profiles from TDR tags and 500 tourist satisfaction questionnaires. Results. Since its official opening in January 2012 more than 140,000 interaction tickets have been sold bringing over 1M USD to the local community and making it one of the largest marine wildlife tourist attractions in South East Asia. The benefits for the community and regional economy are undeniable, however behavioral modification, extended residency time, poor nutritional value of provided food and thermal stress related to the extended permanence in shallow water together with habitat destruction caused by poor diving practices and unregulated coastal developments are some of the quantified side effects of this industry. Conclusion. A series of meeting with the stakeholders and an education campaign have been initiated as bottom up approach and an adaptive management model based on the identification of the limits of acceptable change is being developed in collaboration with the Authorities to address current limitations in the long-term sustainable management of the whale shark watching industry in Oslob.

Background: Prior to this study, the aggregation of whale sharks in the waters of Oslob had never been described. Provisioning (Orams, 2002) activities started in late 2011, and systematic data collection in March 2012, attracting over 100,000 tourists in the first year, and is currently the most reliable aggregation of R. typus in the Philippines. Methods: Daily in-­‐water photographic identification was used as a non-­‐invasive means to describe the population throughout the study period. A total of 135 sharks were identified, and IDs were independently matched by three researchers to minimize error. Photogrammetry (Rohner, 2011) was adopted to complement population description. Results: Daily sightings ranged from 2 to 23 different animals in the interaction area (mean=11.14). A total of 109 males, 15 females and 11 R. typus of undetermined sex were described. The size was estimated for 73.3% of the population, with an average of 5.36m ±1.3m. Photogrammetry posed a mean of 5.63m ±0.59m on 14 sharks, 6.75% >than researchers’ estimates. Resighting (>1d) was observed in 66.7% of the population. Five individuals were present for >300d (n=443) in the interaction area, with a maximum of 420d. Nine individuals were successfully matched across regional hotspots including Donsol and Southern Leyte. Conclusion: Despite the presence of animals in Oslob year round and the influence of the provisioning, there appears to be a seasonal influx of animals, with a maximum of 46 different animals present in the month of June 2012 and again in May 2013, contrasting with a monthly average of 28.9. It appears these waters are important to the species and it’s paramount to fully investigate the impact of the provisioning on the population of R. typus in the Philippines.