Verbal fluency (VF) tasks are typically scored by the number of acceptable words generated within an allotted time (i.e., total score). However, total scores do not provide insight into verbal and executive processes underlying VF task performance. Further analyses have been implemented to increase the analytical power of VF tasks, but systematic scoring guidelines are needed. We generated instructions for administration, scoring, and analyses of total scores, errors, temporal parameters, clustering, and switching with strong inter-rater reliability. To investigate the reliability of the proposed analysis, we modeled the performance of Finnish-speaking older adults (N ¼ 50) in phonemic (/k/, /a/, and /p/) and semantic (animals) categories. Our results are in line with previous studies: We observed a higher performance on semantic than phonemic fluency (p 0.001, d ¼ 0.91) and significant effects for education (p 0.001, d ¼ 1.11) and gender (p 0.001, d ¼ À1.11), but not for age (p ¼ 0.10, d ¼ 0.48). Most errors were repetitions. Performance declined over the allotted time frame as measured in 15-s segments (all ps < 0.001 with medium to large effect sizes). Task congruent clustering and switching were productive strategies (all ps < 0.001 with large effect sizes), and participants generated task discrepant clusters in both phonemic (p ¼ 0.004, d ¼ 0.69) and semantic tasks (p ¼ 0.66, d ¼ 0.18). The results substantiate the proposed method, providing evidence that these guidelines are a reliable starting point for VF task performance analyses in various clinical populations investigating VF task performance in depth.

Purpose While most of the children who are identified as late talkers at the age of 2 years catch up with their peers before school age, some continue to have language difficulties and will later be identified as having developmental language disorder. Our understanding of which children catch up and which do not is limited. The aim of the current study was to find out if inhibition is associated with late talker outcomes at school age. Method We recruited 73 school-aged children (ages 7–10 years) with a history of late talking ( n = 38) or typical development ( n = 35). Children completed measures of language skills and a flanker task to measure inhibition. School-age language outcome was measured as a continuous variable. Results Our analyses did not reveal associations between inhibition and school-age language index or history of late talking. However, stronger school-age language skills were associated with shorter overall response times on the flanker task, in both congruent and incongruent trials. This effect was not modulated by history of late talking, suggesting that a relationship between general response times and language development is similar in both children with typical early language development and late talkers. Conclusions Inhibition is not related to late talker language outcomes. However, children with better language outcomes had shorter general response times. We interpret this to reflect differences in general processing speed, suggesting that processing speed holds promise for predicting school-age language outcomes in both late talkers and children with typical early development. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.14226722

Background: 'Late talkers' (LTs) are toddlers with late language emergence that cannot be explained by other impairments. It is difficult to predict which of these children continue to present long-term restrictions in language abilities and will later be identified as having a developmental language disorder. Procedural memory weaknesses have been suggested to underlie developmental language disorders, but have not been investigated in LTs. Aims: We investigated the relationships between aspects of procedural memory and school-age language abilities in children with and without a history of LT. We hypothesized that children with a history of LT exhibit (1) restrictions in procedural memory when compared with children with typical early development (TED); and (2) a positive association between procedural memory and school-age language abilities. Methods & Procedures: We recruited 79 children (7;5-10;5), 43 of whom had a history of LT. Aspects of procedural memory, procedural learning and motor planning were assessed using the serial reaction time and the end-state comfort tasks. School-age language abilities were measured using standardized tests.Outcomes & Results: Counter to expectations, motor planning was not associated with a history of LT or school-age language abilities, and the children with TED did not show stronger procedural learning as compared with peers with a history of LT. However, weaker school-age language abilities were associated with weak procedural learning in TED group.Conclusions & Implications: Factors other than deficits in procedural memory are likely to underlie LT. Procedural learning shows promise as a potential predictor of language development in children that are not identified as LTs.

Verbal fluency (VF) tasks are typically scored by the total number of acceptable words generated within an allotted time (i.e., total score). VF task total scores can differentiate groups such as healthy subjects and patients, but they do not provide insight into the linguistic and cognitive processes underlying VF performance. To increase the analytical and explanatory power VF tasks can carry, further analysis of errors, temporal parameters, clustering, and switching have been implemented. Systematic scoring guidelines are needed for VF task analysis to be comparable across studies. In this pilot study, we generated detailed instructions for language- specific administration, scoring, and analyses of VF tasks to increase the reliability and validity across studies implementing VF tasks. We demonstrate the analysis for total scores, errors, temporal parameters, task congruent and task discrepant clustering, and switching with strong inter-rater reliability in three phonemic (/k/, / a/, and /p/) and one semantic (animals) category with data of healthy, Finnish speaking adults (N = 50). Our results show that all proposed analyses contribute to VF task performance. We discuss the importance of systematic guidelines and analyses and believe that our analysis on a representative sample of healthy, older monolingual speakers can provide guidance and a starting point for specific VF task performance analyses in various clinical populations.

Purpose: Capacity limitations and procedural learning deficits have been associated with language learning difficulties, but the supporting evidence mostly comes from behavioral studies. We investigated the relationship of these skills and school-age language abilities in children with and without a history of late talking using auditory event related potentials (ERPs). Late talking (i.e., slow early language development) increases the risk of persistent language difficulties, but its causes remain unknown. Method: Participants in this study were children with varying language abilities (n=60). Half of the participants (n=30) had a history of late talking. We measured procedural learning by manipulating the predictability of sine tone stimuli in a passive auditory ERP paradigm. Capacity theories were tested by examining how the presence of noise (increasing perceptual demands) affected the ERPs. Results: In contrast to procedural learning and capacity theories, the effect of stimulus predictability or noise on ERPs did not correlate with school-age language abilities in children with or without a history of late talking. However, better language abilities were related to weaker responses in 75-175 ms and stronger responses in 150-250 ms time window. Conclusions: We suggest that the weak early responses in children with better language ability reflect efficient processing (i.e., low attentional demands) of low-level auditory information, allowing deeper (i.e., more attentive) processing of later, high-level auditory information. We assume that these differences reflect variation in brain maturation between individuals with varying language abilities.