The majority of existing studies of recreational preferences and forest characteristics focused on single stand attributes and demonstrated that people prefer stands with visual variation. However, it may be too simple since most people experience more than one stand when visiting a forest. This study aims at evaluating the effects of variation both within and between stands on recreational values. A choice experiment (CE) was applied to elicit people's preferences for forest types on their next recreational visit. Each alternative is presented with drawings of three forest stands which differ with respect to tree species, height (age) and distance to the site, the latter representing the cost factorwillingness-to-travel. Respondents also compose their ideal recreational forest by selecting three types of stands from the catalogue of drawings. We find that mixed tree species are preferred compared to monocultures. Stands with trees of varying height (uneven-aged stands) are preferred over stands consisting of trees of the same height (even-aged ones). Variation between stands is found to contribute positively to recreational value, and in some instances, this may outweigh contribution of variation within a stand. Comparing respondents' composition of their ideal forest with elicited preferences from the CE, confirm these findings.

Context Most protected areas are managed based on objectives related to scientific ecological knowledge of species and ecosystems. However, a core principle of sustainability science is that understanding and including local ecological knowledge, perceptions of ecosystem service provision and landscape vulnerability will improve sustainability and resilience of social-ecological systems. Here, we take up these assumptions in the context of protected areas to provide insight on the effectiveness of nature protection goals, particularly in highly human-influenced landscapes. Objectives We examined how residents’ ecological knowledge systems, comprised of both local and scientific, mediated the relationship between their characteristics and a set of variables that represented perceptions of ecosystem services, landscape change, human-nature relationships, and impacts. Methods We administered a face-to-face survey to local residents in the Sierra de Guadarrama protected areas, Spain. We used bi- and multi-variate analysis, including partial least squares path modeling to test our hypotheses. Results Ecological knowledge systems were highly correlated and were instrumental in predicting perceptions of water-related ecosystem services, landscape change, increasing outdoors activities, and human-nature relationships. Engagement with nature, socio-demographics, trip characteristics, and a rural–urban gradient explained a high degree of variation in ecological knowledge. Bundles of perceived ecosystem services and impacts, in relation to ecological knowledge, emerged as social representation on how residents relate to, understand, and perceive landscapes. Conclusions Our findings provide insight into the interactions between ecological knowledge systems and their role in shaping perceptions of local communities about protected areas. These results are expected to inform protected area management and landscape sustainability.

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Identification of the ecosystem services provided by oak-dominated forests in southern Sweden is a prerequisite for ensuring their conservation and sustainable management. These forests seem well-suited for multiple-use forestry, but knowledge is limited regarding how to manage them for multiple uses. Management for the production of high-value timber species like oaks and management to conserve biodiversity, or for cultural services can be in conflict with each other. This study evaluates the capacity of three contrasting management regimes to provide societies with economic revenue from timber production, habitats for biodiversity and cultural services, and the study analyses associated trade-offs and synergies. The three regimes were: intensive oak timber production (A), combined management for both timber production and biodiversity (B) and biodiversity conservation without management intervention (C). We synthesized relevant scientific literature, governmental statistics and grey literature. Our assessments identified that Regime A provided the highest levels of economic returns and the lowest level of biodiversity. Regime C provided higher levels of habitat provision but at expense of wood production and cultural services. In contrast, Regime B provided a balanced delivery of timber production, biodiversity conservation and cultural services. We identified several stand-management options which provide comparatively synergistic outcomes in ecosystem services delivery. The use of these management options in combination with more traditional stand-management approaches may be a more effective means of achieving sustainable forest goods and services.