Raven's Progressive Matrices and similar matrix problems have been used in research and intelligence testing for decades. The matrix problems serve as a nonverbal test of analogical reasoning and are thought to measure analytical intelligence (Carpenter, Just, & Shell, 1990), also known as fluid intelligence (cf. Cattell, 1963). Although these matrix problems have a wide variety of research applications, the relatively small number of matrices in Raven's original sets (108 total;Raven, Court, & Raven, 1998) limits their utility in several domains, including neuroimaging experiments and computational modeling of cognitive processes.Our goal in the present study was to create and characterize a very large set of matrix problems that have properties similar to those of Raven's original matrices. We sought to create the matrix set in a systematic way that would allow researchers to have a great deal of control over the underlying structure, surface features, and difficulty of the matrix problems. This in turn would allow researchers to systematically expand the range of difficulty in their stimulus sets beyond the range provided by the original Raven's matrices. To accomplish these goals, we analyzed the underlying structures in Raven's original Standard Progressive Matrices (SPMs) to determine what types and combinations of relations were used. On the basis of that analysis, we developed software that can use the same underlying patterns to generate large numbers of unique matrix problems using parameters chosen by the researcher. Specifically, the software is designed so that researchers can choose the type, direction, and number of relations in a problem and create any number of unique matrices that share the same underlying structure (e.g., changes in numerosity in a diagonal pattern) but have different surface features (e.g., shapes, colors).Finally, we used the matrix generation software to produce a representative set of matrix problems that cover the range of underlying structures that can be produced by the software. This set of matrices was compared with Raven's SPMs in a norming study. The first goal of the norming study was to compare the difficulty of the generated matrices with the difficulty of the SPMs with the same underlying structure. The second goal was to assess the difficulty of specific structural features within the matrices and the range of problem difficulties that can be produced by the matrix generation software when those features are combined. Analysis of Raven's Progressive Matrix StructuresPrevious studies have analyzed the factors that contribute to the difficulty of Raven and Raven-like matrix problems. Raven's Progressive Matrices is a widely used test for assessing intelligence and reasoning ability (Raven, Court, & Raven, 1998). Since the test is nonverbal, it can be applied to many different populations and has been used all over the world (Court & Raven, 1995). However, relatively few matrices are in the sets developed by Raven, which limits their use in experiments requiring l...
Visual inspection research has a long history spanning the 20th century and continuing to the present day. Current efforts in multiple venues demonstrate that visual inspection continues to have a vital role for many different types of tasks in the 21st century. The nature of this role spans the range from traditional human visual inspection to fully automated detection of defects. Consequently, today’s practitioners must not only successfully identify and apply lessons learned from the past, but also explore new areas of research in order to derive solutions for modern day issues such as those presented by introducing automation during inspection. A key lesson from past research indicates that the factors that can degrade performance will persist today, unless care is taken to design the inspection process appropriately.
Human behavior is characterized by creativity, flexibility, and adaptability. Psychologists have argued that this is a result of analogical reasoning processes. Neuroimaging studies point to PFC as a critical component of a larger network; however, it remains unclear how the brain accomplishes analogical reasoning. This paper presents a theory of prefrontal cortical function that attempts to explain the neural mechanisms of analogical processing in the context of the broader theoretical and empirical work on PFC. Specifically, the current paper proposes that neurons in PFC are particularly sensitive to relationship information, and that they develop response preferences for relationship information that increases in abstractness and complexity along the posterior-anterior axis. Further, this theory posits that representation formation in PFC is driven by fronto-striatal circuits and that the persistence of these representations is determined by environmental consequences such that the longer the representation predicts reward or punishment, the longer the representation lasts. Finally, it is suggested that because analogy has been proposed as a core cognitive process, underlying many other interesting cognitive phenomena such as learning, creativity, and decision-making, it could serve as a useful tool for studying PFC function in general.
In their quest to understand romantic relationships, researchers have extensively examined mate preferences. Self-report methods have been most commonly employed. In this study, the authors used a methodology not employed in other studies to date. First, they used peer reports of dating popularity to assess the extent to which individuals of varying qualities are romantically pursued by opposite-sex individuals. Second, the authors obtained peer nominations of a variety of qualities that self-report studies of mate preferences indicate may be important. Results revealed that romantically popular men are physically attractive, outgoing, and seen as trendsetters. Romantically popular women were also viewed as physically attractive and as trendsetters. In contrast to the self-report literature, men who were seen as having most potential for financial success were not particularly popular. Results are discussed with respect to the self-reported preferences literature.
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