Food Fraud has been a problem for as long as food trade exists in human history. Recent food fraud scandals have attracted particular attention of the public and authorities. The fight against food fraud is still hampered by a lack of a clear definition stating which facts constitute a legal case of food fraud. Against this background, an online survey was conducted in the official food control authorities of the German federal states to obtain an overview of the facts considered as food fraud and to identify factors which, according to the respondents, could be used for the early detection of food fraud. The study was carried out in autumn 2017 with the online software tool Sosci Survey. The data collected was analysed descriptively using Microsoft Excel. The following facts are classified as food fraud by almost all participants: substitution of substances/ liquids, imitation of foodstuff, omission of substances/liquids and the concealment of inferior quality of a product. The origin of the foodstuff is considered to be the most important factor in predicting possible food fraud, followed by the product category and price fluctuations. The results of this study show similarities and differences in the understanding of the term food fraud in the official institutions of Germany. Therefore they might be used for the development of a legal definition, which eliminates the identified ambiguities and is a prerequisite for a stringent and congruent fight against food fraud. The identified factors for predicting possible cases of food fraud could be used to develop an early warning system and could thus be part of an overall prevention concept.
Various systems for prioritizing biological agents with respect to their applicability as biological weapons are available, ranging from qualitative to (semi)quantitative approaches. This research aimed at generating a generic risk ranking system applicable to human and animal pathogenic agents based on scientific information. Criteria were evaluated and clustered to create a criteria list. Considering availability of data, a number of 28 criteria separated by content were identified that can be classified in 11 thematic areas or categories. Relevant categories contributing to probability were historical aspects, accessibility, production efforts, and possible paths for dispersion. Categories associated with impact are dealing with containment measures, availability of diagnostics, preventive and treatment measures in human and animal populations, impact on society, human and veterinary public health, and economic and ecological consequences. To allow data-based scoring, each criterion was described by at least 1 measure that allows the assignment of values. These values constitute quantities, ranges, or facts that are as explicit and precise as possible. The consideration of minimum and maximum values that can occur due to natural variations and that are often described in the literature led to the development of minimum and maximum criteria and consequently category scores. Missing or incomplete data, and uncertainty resulting therefrom, were integrated into the scheme via a cautious (but not overcautious) approach. The visualization technique that was used allows the description and illustration of uncertainty on the level of probability and impact. The developed risk ranking system was evaluated by assessing the risk originating from the bioterrorism threat of the animal pathogen bluetongue virus, the human pathogen Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7, the zoonotic Bacillus anthracis, and Botulinum neurotoxin.
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