The flexor retinaculum is a structure located in the wrist, which spreads between the bones forming the carpal tunnel. Its task is to maintain the relative stabilization and protection of incorporated structures. It is also an attachment for the thenar muscles, causing biomechanical interactions in the wrist. Pathologies occurring in the carpal tunnel structures often cause pressure increase, leading to compression of the median nerve, causing carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). This work aims to review literature knowledge and compile research outcomes in the PubMED and Google scholar databases. The results indicate the variability in size and aspects of flexor retinaculum due to gender, and the relationship between gender and the incidence of CTS. The data also show the flexor retinaculum’s molecular variability and environmental factors’ potential impact on these changes. This article demonstrates how anatomical conditions and physical features influence CTS development.
Introduction: The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris (FCU) is a part of the palmar the forearm muscle group and one of the most important muscles for upper limb functioning - is responsible for flexion and adduction of the hand at the radio-carpal joint. There are clinically significant but rare anatomical variations of FCU. The variability of the FCU has not been described up to now, and no typology of the muscle based on its more variable terminal attachment has been created. Aim of the study: Determination of FCU muscle typology based on available fetal material. Material and methods: A total of 114 human fetuses (53 female, 61 male) between 117 and 197 days of fetal life were eligible for the study. Preparations were carried out using classical anatomical techniques based on a previously published procedure. Thanks to that significant anthropometric landmarks were visible for the gathering of metric measurements. Metric measurements were taken and statistically analysed using R-Project software. Results: A new typology was created based on variable muscle insertions. Additionally, the presence of an atypically located, additional, separated muscle belly was described. A comparison of measurements of the left upper limb in relation to the right upper limb showed significant differences for forearm length to the anthropometric point of the stylion radiale, limb length, total FCU length and FCU length which means that the left limb is longer than the right limb. A comparison of FCU insertion types between left and right upper limb showed there’s no significant difference between counts of each type. Conclusion: The FCU is a muscle that is easy to palpate and may therefore act as a topographical marker for healthcare professionals. Knowledge of its variability is not only of theoretical importance but also has clinical significance. The current publication demonstrates presence of variability in FCU terminal attachment. Certainly, this topic requires further research and continued work on a detailed understanding of forearm anatomy in the fetal period.
Every human body is made up of billions of cells, and every cell consists of thousands of microscopic structures. Thanks to the presence of the cytoskeleton, which is built by microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments, cells are able to fulfill their main function. Dozens of genes encode a large family of cytoskeletal proteins, which form 10-nanometer-long microfilaments, called cytokeratins. The study was carried out on seven mature human placentas without significant pathology - all eligible mothers were healthy. The collection of basic anthropometric data preceded the dissection of the placentas. Paraffin blocks were made in the usual manner, and hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides were made afterward. Immunohistochemical reactions were performed and the expression of the studied markers was evaluated independently by two observers. Evaluation of microscopic material revealed the absence of expression of antibodies for cytokeratin 5/6 in placental tissues. Moreover, strong expression of cytokeratin 7 was demonstrated in the villi trophoblast in all types of villi. Immunohistochemical reactions were observed in the mesenchyme within the blood vessel wall, as well as in the extravascular tissue. The human placenta is an organ that only exists during the intrauterine period of human development and undergoes rapid changes and dynamic growth during pregnancy. These types of processes define selected placental cells as ‘pseudo-tumorigenic tissue’ because of the numerous similarities trophoblast cells have to tumor cells. The use of tissue microarray (TMA) in combination with immunohistochemistry (IHC) may be a valuable approach to validate the predictive and diagnostic utility of various biomarkers in non-cancerous tissues like placental tissue.
It is impossible to imagine learning anatomy without properly fixating cadavers. Thanks to accurate preservation techniques, students can differentiate anatomical structures by their sight and touch. The formalin method was first described almost 150 years ago, and as such it may seem primitive, however it is effective and easy to use, which is why it is still in use today. Despite formaldehyde’s bactericidal, fungicidal, and insecticidal properties contact with vapors of embalming solutions such as formalin may have a negative health effect. Skin drying, eczema, allergic contact dermatitis and lowered red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets are only a few symptoms that may occur as a result of spending long periods of time in places where cadavers are stored. Due to formalin’s features, other techniques were invented. Thiel’s method is also well known; after liquid application, tissues remain their natural color as the method is non-irritating and almost odorless. With the rise of technology, more modern methods of cadaver preservation were developed as alternative to formalin, such as the use of N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (NVP), which is commonly implemented in Japan and Brazil, and the Modified Larssen solution (MLS), which gives the possibility to reduce formalin concentration without losing the effectiveness of tissue preservation. The aim of this work is to develop an integrated approach to cadaver preservation through the analysis of frequently used preservation techniques. This is a considerable issue because first-year students of medicine and related faculties encounter the preserved material while learning anatomy. In comparison to more modern methods, formalin seems to be the worst choice due to worse joint flexibility, tissue colour and structure and, most importantly, its cancerogenic action.
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