Due to their peripheral location in the dental pulp and their cellular extension into dentin, odontoblasts are the first pulpal cells to encounter dental pathogens. The association of odontoblasts with immunoglobulins and dendritic cells during microbial invasion of dentin implies that these cells may possess a role in the innate and adaptive pulpal immune responses, however this has not been examined. A pivotal step in the innate immune response is the detection of foreign antigen and the recruitment of immune effector cells to the area. IL-8 is a potent chemotactic cytokine that plays an important role in the inflammatory response. The purpose of this study was to determine if odontoblasts are capable of expressing the pro-inflammatory chemokine IL-8. Human odontoblasts from intact, noncarious third molars were maintained in culture and exposed to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (serotype 055:B5) on day 4 for 8-10 h in a humidified 5% CO2 incubator. Control and experimental samples were assayed by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot for the production of IL-8 mRNA and protein. Analysis of the PCR products revealed that cells of the odontoblast layer maintained in this culture model constitutively expressed low levels of IL-8, which were increased in response to E. coli LPS exposure. Western blotting confirmed that the mRNA was translated into protein. These results imply that odontoblasts are capable of producing of pro-inflammatory mediators, thereby actively participating in the recruitment of neutrophils in response to bacterial by-products.

The natural mechanisms that direct proteins to membranes are typically complex, requiring multiple steps and accessory components. It would be advantageous to develop simplified methods to direct proteins of interest to phospholipid membranes in a single step. Here we report a modular method for membrane localization of proteins by using chemically modified phospholipid anchors capable of covalent attachment to O(6)-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (SNAP-tag) fusion proteins. To our knowledge, this is the first use of SNAP-tag reactions to modify benzylguanine-functionalized lipid membranes. We demonstrate that photocaged lipid precursors enable light-triggered spatial and temporal control over protein localization. The anchoring system is compatible with cell-free expression, allowing for genetic targeting of proteins to lipid membranes of giant unilamellar vesicles. This technique can be used to control membrane curvature effects, similar to what has been previously observed with certain membrane-bound proteins. This work addresses a current need in synthetic biology for simplified and robust methods to control membrane localization of expressed proteins and shows promise as a general tool for protein targeting to lipid vesicles and cellular membranes.

Cell membranes have a vast repertoire of phospholipid species whose structures can be dynamically modified by enzymatic remodeling of acyl chains and polar head groups. Lipid remodeling plays important roles in membrane biology and dysregulation can lead to disease. Although there have been tremendous advances in creating artificial membranes to model the properties of native membranes, a major obstacle has been developing straightforward methods to mimic lipid membrane remodeling. Stable liposomes are typically kinetically trapped and are not prone to exchanging diacylphospholipids. Here, we show that reversible chemoselective reactions can be harnessed to achieve nonenzymatic spontaneous remodeling of phospholipids in synthetic membranes. Our approach relies on transthioesterification/ acyl shift reactions that occur spontaneously and reversibly between tertiary amides and thioesters. We demonstrate exchange and remodeling of both lipid acyl chains and head groups. Using our synthetic model system we demonstrate the ability of spontaneous phospholipid remodeling to trigger changes in vesicle spatial organization, composition, and morphology as well as recruit proteins that can affect vesicle curvature. Membranes capable of chemically exchanging lipid fragments could be used to help further understand the specific roles of lipid structure remodeling in biological membranes.L iving organisms carry out the de novo synthesis of phospholipid membranes, in part, by using membrane-bound acyltransferases and reactive thioester precursors ( Fig. 1A) (1). Subsequently, de novo synthesized phospholipid membranes can be remodeled by acyltransferases and transacylases in the presence of different lysolipid, phospholipid, and fatty acid precursors ( Fig. 1A) (2). Such natural mechanisms allow cells to fine-tune properties of biological membranes by changing the composition and organization of their constituent lipids and proteins (3). Membrane remodeling is an essential component of numerous cellular functions including the formation of organelles (4), division (5), trafficking (6), and signaling (7). Many experimental and theoretical studies have examined membrane remodeling due to enzymatically driven changes in lipid composition (8). For instance, the disruption of the transacylase activity of the enzyme tafazzin leads to alterations in the mitochondrial lipid cardiolipin and the disease known as Barth's syndrome (9).Model membranes composed of well-defined synthetic lipids are useful tools for studying questions related to membrane biology (10, 11). The importance of lipid remodeling in biology underscores the need for straightforward methods to remodel lipid composition in artificial model membranes. Unfortunately, nonenzymatic methods to exchange lysolipid fragments in synthetic vesicles have previously not been feasible. This is likely due to the high kinetic stability of phospholipid membranes, which do not readily exchange diacylphospholipid species between membranes (12). Because the composition of phospholipids c...

Inducing protein translocation to the plasma membrane (PM) is an important approach for manipulating diverse signaling molecules/pathways in living cells. We previously devised a new chemogenetic system, in which a protein fused to Escherichia coli dihydrofolate reductase (eDHFR) can be rapidly translocated from the cytoplasm to the PM using a trimethoprim (TMP)-based self-localizing ligand (SL), mgcTMP. However, mgcTMP-induced protein translocation turned out to be transient and spontaneously reversed within 1 h, limiting its application. Here, we first demonstrated that the spontaneous reverse translocation was caused by cellular degradation of mgcTMP, presumably by proteases. To address this problem, we newly developed a proteolysis-resistant SL, mDcTMP. This mDcTMP now allows sustained PM localization of eDHFR-fusion proteins (over several hours to a day), and it was applicable to inducing prolonged signal activation and cell differentiation. mDcTMP also worked in live nematodes, making it an attractive new tool for probing and controlling living systems.

Mammalian cells synthesize thousands of distinct lipids, yet the function of many of these lipid species is unknown. Ceramides, a class of sphingolipid, are implicated in several cell-signaling pathways but poor cell permeability and lack of selectivity in endogenous synthesis pathways have hampered direct study of their effects. Here we report a strategy that overcomes the inherent biological limitations of ceramide delivery by chemoselectively ligating lipid precursors in vivo to yield natural ceramides in a traceless manner. Using this method, we uncovered the apoptotic effects of several ceramide species and observed differences in their apoptotic activity based on acyl-chain saturation. Additionally, we demonstrate spatiotemporally controlled ceramide synthesis in live cells through photoinitiated lipid ligation. Our in situ lipid ligation approach addresses the long-standing problem of lipid-specific delivery and enables the direct study of unique ceramide species in live cells.