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This paper offers a novel contribution to the literature on marginal emission factors by proposing a robust empirical methodology for their estimation across both time and space. Our ARIMA model with time-effects not only outperforms the established models in the economics literature but it also proves more reliable than variations adopted in the field of engineering. Utilising half-hourly data on carbon emissions and generation in Great Britain, the results allow us to identify a more stable path of MEFs than obtained with existing methodologies. We also estimate marginal emission effects over subsequent time periods (intra-day), rather than focussing only on individual settlement periods (inter-day). This allows us to evaluate the annual cycle of emissions as a result of changes in the economic and social activity which drives demand. Moreover, the reliability of our approach is further confirmed upon exploring the crosscountry context. Indeed, our methodology proves reliable when applied to the case of Italy, which is characterised by a different data generation 2 process. Crucially, we provide a more robust basis for valuing actual carbon emission reductions, especially in electricity systems with high penetration of intermittent renewable technologies.
This paper investigates emerging non-traditional business models for decentralised energy systems with a focus on the role of city-scale storage technologies. We discuss the key characteristics of the different business models which have been identified in the literature and we discuss case studies across the United Kingdom in order to illustrate the key factors which influence their adoption and implementation. On the basis of evidence from recent UK case studies we investigate the market and regulatory barriers, contractual and transactional issues which may prevent key actors from exploiting the full market potential of their assets. We find that emerging business models rely on a range of different revenue sources with some limitations due to complex contractual relations, regulatory barriers and limited access to markets for ancillary services. The evidence we provide can be used by companies and organisations intending to operate in this fast developing market and inform policymakers aiming to promote the expansion and improvement of emerging business models.
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