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Trying to conceive and being pregnant is an emotional period for those involved. In the majority of patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease, maintenance therapy is required during pregnancy to control the disease, and disease control might necessitate introduction of new drugs during a vulnerable period. In this updated consensus on the reproduction and pregnancy in inflammatory bowel disease reproductive issues including fertility, the safety of drugs during pregnancy and lactation are discussed.

disorders including inflammatory bowel diseases and require constant repair of the epithelium. Enhancement of intestinal repair mechanisms by regulatory peptides or other modulatory factors may provide future approaches for the treatment of diseases that are characterized by injuries of the epithelial surface. THE MUCOSAL DEFENSE SYSTEMThe surface of the digestive tract is covered by epithelial cells that constitute an efficient physical barrier between the dietary and enteric flora pathogens found in the intestinal lumen and the individuum, but also allows an exchange between nutrients and the systemic circulation [1] . The epithelial defense mechanism can be categorized into three key components: pre-epithelial, epithelial and post-epithelial, the latter is represented by the lamina propria [2] . The pre-epithelial mucus barrier is composed of mucin associated with other proteins and lipids and forms a continuous gel into which a bicarbonate-rich fluid is secreted, maintaining a neutralizing pH at the epithelial surface. Phosphatidylcholine is the predominant surface bioactive phospholipid found within the gastrointestinal tract [3] . Intestinal epithelial cells secrete mucins and glycocalyx, which contain membrane-anchored negatively charged mucin-like glycoproteins and hydrophobic phospholipids [4] . The tight adherence of mucin to the apical surfaces of epithelia is owed to the existence of the specific complex between mucin oligosaccharides and the mucin binding protein of the apical mucosal membrane [5] . AbstractInflammatory bowel disease is characterized by a chronic inflammation of the intestinal mucosa. The mucosal epithelium of the alimentary tract constitutes a key element of the mucosal barrier to a broad spectrum of deleterious substances present within the intestinal lumen including bacterial microorganisms, various dietary factors, gastrointestinal secretory products and drugs. In addition, this mucosal barrier can be disturbed in the course of various intestinal disorders including inflammatory bowel diseases. Fortunately, the integrity of the gastrointestinal surface epithelium is rapidly reestablished even after extensive destruction. Rapid resealing of the epithelial barrier following injuries is accomplished by a process termed epithelial restitution, followed by more delayed mechanisms of epithelial wound healing including increased epithelial cell proliferation and epithelial cell differentiation. Restitution of the intestinal surface epithelium is modulated by a range of highly divergent factors among them a broad spectrum of structurally distinct regulatory peptides, variously described as growth factors or cytokines. S e ve ra l re g u l a t or y pe pt ide fac t or s ac t from t he basolateral site of the epithelial surface and enhance epithelial cell restitution through TGF-β-dependent pathways. In contrast, members of the trefoil factor family (TFF peptides) appear to stimulate epithelial restitution in conjunction with mucin glycoproteins through a TGF-β-independent mechanism from...