Common maxims about beauty suggest that attractiveness is not important in life. In contrast, both fitness-related evolutionary theory and socialization theory suggest that attractiveness influences development and interaction. In 11 meta-analyses, the authors evaluate these contradictory claims, demonstrating that (a) raters agree about who is and is not attractive, both within and across cultures; (b) attractive children and adults are judged more positively than unattractive children and adults, even by those who know them; (c) attractive children and adults are treated more positively than unattractive children and adults, even by those who know them; and (d) attractive children and adults exhibit more positive behaviors and traits than unattractive children and adults. Results are used to evaluate social and fitness-related evolutionary theories and the veracity of maxims about beauty.I cannot say often enough how much I consider beauty a powerful and advantageous quality. Socrates called it "A short tyranny," and Plato, '~Fhe privilege of nature." We have no quality that surpasses it in credit. It holds the first place in human relations; it presents itself before the rest, seduces and prepossesses our judgment with great authority and a wondrous impression.--Montaigne, Essays "Beauty is truth, truth beauty," --that is all Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. --Keats, Ode on a Grecian UrnBeauty has interested poets, philosophers, and scientists for centuries. Indeed, the ancient Greeks believed that there is a fundamental relation between beauty and positive qualities: Those who are beautiful are also good (Sappho, Fragment No. 101). "Beauty is good" was empirically tested in a seminal study by Dion, Berscheid, and Walster (1972), who demonstrated that, even in modem times, human beings attribute positive qualities to attractive people and negative qualities to unattractive people. Since this important study, much research has focused on the effects of attractiveness, especially facial attractiveness, on, the attributions, impressions, and stereotypes of strangers. These studies primarily have investigated attributions made by college students about attractive and unattractive strangers based on a photograph of the face and, sometimes, minimal printed "background information" about the hypothetical individuals. This strangerattribution literature has been summarized by earlier meta-analyses (see, e.g., Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijanl, & Longo, 1991;Feingold, 1992b), which have confmned the association between attractiveness and many attributions of positive characteristics. 1Contrary to these findings of a reliable relation between attractiveness and attributions of positive qualifies, however, are several age-old maxims and precepts holding that attractiveness either is not or should not be a significant factor in social interactions or behaviors. Three maxims in particular are heard frequently: (a) Beauty is in the eye of the beholder, (b) never judge a book by its cover, and (c) beauty is only skin-deep...
This paper presents a network model of organization formation and builds upon theories of social and socioeconomic exchange. The model explains the transformation of exchange relationships from a set of relatively simple, often single-dimensional dyadic exchanges into a dense set—a network—of stable, multidimensional and multilayered interorganizatlonal exchange relationships. The model details three stages of entrepreneurial networking activity which are used to secure the critical economic and non-economic resources needed to start a business: (1) Focusing on the essential dyads; (2) Converting dyadic ties to socioeconomic exchanges; and (3) Layering the exchanges with multiple exchange processes. In all three stages, there is an iterative process which involves the exploration, screening and selective use of network dyads to match the business definition of the emerging firm. Organization formation results from the crystallization of stable, committed, revenue-generating, inter-organizational exchange relationships which extend beyond the earlier idiosyncratic and personalized relationships of the entrepreneur. A network model of organization formation appreciates the social embeddedness of economic relationships and the multidimensional nature and content of business relationships.
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