This paper considers pollution/toxicological science in an archaeological context. Copper mining was an important activity in southern Jordan, especially during the Bronze Age, Nabatean, Roman, and Byzantine periods, and the environmental legacy of such intensive mining and smelting activities exists today in the form of massive, ancient spoil and smelting tips. The environment was heavily polluted by copper, lead, and other cations during these early periods and the effects of such pollutants continue into modern times. Samples of goat, sheep, and Bronze Age and Byzantine skeletons have been analyzed and high metal loads, from uptake by diverse processes, are reported. Emphasis is placed on the importance of sampling procedure and sample location, bioaccumulation, and the partitioning of such elements. Implications of such pollutants in terms of environmental and human health in ancient and modern times are discussed. Teeth are found to provide excellent vehicles for the monitoring of pollution in both ancient and recent times. Bronze Age skeletons exhibited chemical fingerprints different from those of the Byzantine period.
Abstract-The concentrations of several metals in different body tissues of the freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis (L.), collected from an uncontaminated environment, were measured by electron probe X-ray microanalysis. Significant concentrations of the potentially toxic elements manganese, titanium, and copper were detected in all tissues, although they were not detectable in the water sampled at collection; bioaccumulation is thus evidenced. Highest concentrations of manganese and copper were present in the shell, while highest concentrations of titanium were present in the head and foot. Experimental snails were continuously exposed to lead chloride (lead at 5 ppm) for an experimental period of 3 weeks. Both elements were accumulated to different extents by the snail tissues but with high concentrations again in the head of the animals, and chloride also in the visceral hump. No significant alterations in the distribution of the other elements measured were observed in the lead chloride-exposed animals.
The concentrations of several metals in different body tissues of the freshwater snail Lymnaea stagnalis (L.), collected from an uncontaminated environment, were measured by electron probe X‐ray microanalysis. Significant concentrations of the potentially toxic elements manganese, titanium, and copper were detected in all tissues, although they were not detectable in the water sampled at collection; bioaccumulation is thus evidenced. Highest concentrations of manganese and copper were present in the shell, while highest concentrations of titanium were present in the head and foot. Experimental snails were continuously exposed to lead chloride (lead at 5 ppm) for an experimental period of 3 weeks. Both elements were accumulated to different extents by the snail tissues but with high concentrations again in the head of the animals, and chloride also in the visceral hump. No significant alterations in the distribution of the other elements measured were observed in the lead chloride‐exposed animals.
Snails (Lymnaea peregra) were exposed to both low and high concentrations of copper(as copper nitrate) undercontrolled conditions and then were sacrificed and dissected; various tissues/organs were removed and subsequently analyzed by atomic absorption spectrophotometry to determine both the copper concentration and the nature of localization. At low concentrations, bioaccumulation was evident in various tissues/organs; a dose response occurred in tissues derived from both the head and foot. At high concentrations, the copper concentrations of the liver-like body and kidney became massively enhanced. There was some variability in the ranking of tissues/organs with regard to copper bioaccumulation--this was predominantly linked to the copper concentration to which the snails were exposed. Mechanisms of copper bioaccumulation are reviewed and comparisons with other organisms made.
The invertebrate populations of stony desert sites contaminated by ancient metalliferous activities in the Nabatean, Roman and Byzantine periods were significantly different from those found in adjacent ancient abandoned field systems. Consequently, it is apparent that such invertebrates potentially have uses as biomonitors of metalliferous pollution derived from ancient anthropogenic activities. This is further explored by an analysis of the heavy metal content of certain of these animals; extensive bioaccumulation of copper and especially lead occurred in organisms inhabiting areas associated with ancient metalliferous enterprises.
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