Our paper reviews recent progress in the study and understanding of observed trends in extreme rainfall events in the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo (MASP). These are discussed in relation to hydrometeorological hazards that trigger natural disasters, such as flash floods, landslides, and droughts, that affect the population and local economies. A review of the most updated literature on rainfall and extremes in the MASP shows a significant increase in the total volume of rainy‐season rainfall during the last seven decades. While there were practically no days with heavy rain (more than 50 mm) in the 1950s, these days have been occurring two to five times a year in the last 10 years. This, together with the inappropriate occupation of risky areas, such as slopes and banks of watercourses, leads to inundation, flooding, and landslides. Changes in extremes can be partly due to natural climate variability but can also be related to global warming and/or urbanization. There is ample evidence of an increasing risk of rainfall‐related hazards in the MASP. This is particularly so for landslides in vulnerable areas. Exposure will continue to lead to risk increases. This calls for significant improvement in climate and disaster risk reduction and management efforts in the MASP region.

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It has become increasingly clear that cities will have to simultaneously undertake both adaptation and mitigation in response to accelerating climate change and the growing demands for meaningful climate action. Here we examine the connections between climate mitigation and climate adaptation, specifically, between low‐carbon energy systems and extreme events. The article specifically addresses the question, how do responses to extreme climate risks enhance or limit capacity to promote city‐level greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation? As a step toward answering this question, we present a framework for considering windows of opportunity that may arise as a result of extreme events and how these windows can be exploited to foster development and implementation of low‐carbon energy strategies. Four brief case studies are used to provide empirical background and determine the impact of potential windows of opportunity. Some general conclusions are defined. In particular, the existing energy system structure is an important determinant of impact and potential for energy transitions. Well‐developed and articulated governance strategies and ready access of effective and economically efficient alternative energy technology were key to transitions. However, prospects for inequity in development and implementation of low‐carbon solutions need to be considered. Finally, exploiting windows of opportunity afforded by extreme events for developing low‐carbon economy and infrastructure also can provide resilience against those very events. These types of responses will be needed as extreme events increase in frequency and magnitude in the future, with cities as primary sites of impact and action. This article is categorized under: Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change > Learning from Cases and Analogies

In this study, we simulated the expansion of the São Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA) -the largest metropolitan area in Brazil -by the year 2030 using the Dinamica EGO software with data extracted from Landsat TM 7 (orbit point 219 076, resolution 30 × 30 m). Based on the urban area in 2008, we used an urban growth scenario to analyze urban expansion up to 2030. Subsequently, we used ArcGIS to integrate the spatial information, combining layers to create risk maps. In this case, environmental risk factors, along with flood and landslide probabilities, were considered in order to identify high-risk areas. By 2030, the urban area was projected to increase by approximately 38.7%, and to cover 3250 km 2 . With this growth, 807 km 2 of the region (and 4.27% of urban expansion areas) will be in flood risk zones.

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Introduction: Many coastal cities have recently recognized the need to adapt to climate change, given the increased frequency of disasters cause by severe weather events. Based on concepts about vulnerability and resilience, we identify the limitations and opportunities of synergy between different areas of municipal action.Case description: This paper explores the emerging linkages between city planning process and environmental disasters prevention in Santos (Brazil). To help visualize this process, we explore the emerging linkages between lowlying lands affected by sea level rise (SLR) and weather related hazards, such as floods and landslides, and we proposed some urban typologies to assist the identification of risk areas that reflect the importance of the urban design as a part of a broader set of decisions. Discussion and Evaluation:The government agencies and political coalitions are reconnecting in the city planning process by working to change the social and political institutions to make local areas at risk safest places. A framework of decision making process through urban typologies addressed to the political conditions and some institutional arrangements occurred in order to promote disaster risk management. In this context, important programs were addressed to residential areas using legal/formal mechanisms to provide a significant reduction of disasters. Conclusion:In order to meet long-term global target for disasters reduction, it is important to realize that the choices are not permanent solutions because it is a continuous process that can be updated based on realistic solutions, but the experiences in Santos represent pioneering efforts in Brazil that define urban rules and adaptive policies with substantial responsibilities for local government and society, demanding ongoing tracking as they evolve and become mature.

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