Mesothelioma has been regarded as a nonimmunogenic tumor, which is also shown by the low response rates to treatments targeting the PD-1/PD-L1 axis. Previously, we demonstrated that autologous tumor lysate-pulsed dendritic cell (DC) immunotherapy increased T-cell response toward malignant mesothelioma. However, the use of autologous tumor material hampers implementation in large clinical trials, which might be overcome by using allogeneic tumor cell lines as tumor antigen source. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether allogeneic lysate-pulsed DC immunotherapy is effective in mice and safe in humans. First, in two murine mesothelioma models, mice were treated with autologous DCs pulsed with either autologous or allogeneic tumor lysate or injected with PBS (negative control). Survival and tumor-directed T-cell responses of these mice were monitored. Results were taken forward in a first-in-human clinical trial, in which 9 patients were treated with 10, 25, or 50 million DCs per vaccination. DC vaccination consisted of autologous monocyte-derived DCs pulsed with tumor lysate from five mesothelioma cell lines. In mice, allogeneic lysate-pulsed DC immunotherapy induced tumor-specific T cells and led to an increased survival, to a similar extent as DC immunotherapy with autologous tumor lysate. In the first-in-human clinical trial, no dose-limiting toxicities were established and radiographic responses were observed. Median PFS was 8.8 months [95% confidence interval (CI), 4.1-20.3] and median OS not reached (median follow-up = 22.8 months). DC immunotherapy with allogeneic tumor lysate is effective in mice and safe and feasible in humans. .

Adoptive transfer of T cells gene-engineered with antigen-specific T cell receptors (TCRs) has proven its feasibility and therapeutic potential in the treatment of malignant tumors. To ensure further clinical development of TCR gene therapy, it is necessary to target immunogenic epitopes that are related to oncogenesis and selectively expressed by tumor tissue, and implement strategies that result in optimal T cell fitness. In addition, in particular for the treatment of solid tumors, it is equally necessary to include strategies that counteract the immune-suppressive nature of the tumor micro-environment. Here, we will provide an overview of the current status of TCR gene therapy, and redefine the following three challenges of improvement: “choice of target antigen”; “fitness of T cells”; and “sensitization of tumor milieu.” We will categorize and discuss potential strategies to address each of these challenges, and argue that advancement of clinical TCR gene therapy critically depends on developments toward each of the three challenges.

Adoptive therapy with engineered T cells shows promising results in treating patients with malignant disease, but is challenged by incomplete responses and tumor recurrences. Here, we aimed to direct the tumor microenvironment in favor of a successful immune response by local secretion of interleukin (IL-) 12 and IL-18 by sadministered T cells. To this end, we engineered T cells with a melanoma-specific T cell receptor (TCR) and murine IL-12 and/or IL-18 under the control of a nuclear-factor of activated T-cell (NFAT)-sensitive promoter. These T cells produced IL-12 or IL-18, and consequently enhanced levels of IFNγ, following exposure to antigen-positive but not negative tumor cells. Adoptive transfer of T cells with a TCR and inducible (i)IL-12 to melanoma-bearing mice resulted in severe, edema-like toxicity that was accompanied by enhanced levels of IFNγ and TNFα in blood, and reduced numbers of peripheral TCR transgene-positive T cells. In contrast, transfer of T cells expressing a TCR and iIL-18 was without side effects, enhanced the presence of therapeutic CD8+ T cells within tumors, reduced tumor burden and prolonged survival. Notably, treatment with TCR+iIL-12 but not iIL-18 T cells resulted in enhanced intra-tumoral accumulation of macrophages, which was accompanied by a decreased frequency of therapeutic T cells, in particular of the CD8 subset. In addition, when administered to mice, iIL-18 but not iIL-12 demonstrated a favorable profile of T cell co-stimulatory and inhibitory receptors. In conclusion, we observed that treatment with T cells engineered with a TCR and iIL18 T cells is safe and able to skew the tumor microenvironment in favor of an improved anti-tumor T cell response.

Background Checkpoint inhibitors have become standard care of treatment for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), yet only a limited fraction of patients experiences durable clinical benefit, highlighting the need for markers to stratify patient populations. Methods To prospectively identify patients showing response to therapy, we have stained peripheral blood samples of NSCLC patients treated with 2nd line nivolumab ( n = 71), as well as healthy controls, with multiplex flow cytometry. By doing so, we enumerated 18 immune cell subsets and assessed expression for 28 T cell markers, which was followed by dimensionality reduction as well as rationale-based analyses. Results In patients with a partial response (PR), representing best overall response (BOR) according to RECIST v1.1, the number of CD8 T cells at baseline and during treatment is similar to those of healthy controls, but 2-fold higher than in patients with progressive and stable disease (PD and SD). CD8 T cell populations in PR patients show enhanced frequencies of T effector memory re-expressing CD45RA (TEMRA) cells, as well as T cells that express markers of terminal differentiation (CD95+) and egression from tumor tissue (CD69-). In PR patients, the fraction of CD8 T cells that lacks co-stimulatory receptors (CD28, ICOS, CD40L, 4-1BB, OX40) correlates significantly with the total numbers and differentiated phenotype of CD8 T cells. Conclusions This study demonstrates that high numbers of peripheral CD8 T cells expressing differentiation markers and lacking co-stimulatory receptors at baseline are associated with response to nivolumab in NSCLC patients. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40425-019-0608-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Adoptive therapy with T-cell receptor (TCR)-engineered T cells has shown promising results in the treatment of patients with tumors, and the number of TCRs amenable for clinical testing is expanding rapidly. Notably, adoptive therapy with T cells is challenged by treatment-related side effects, which calls for cautious selection of target antigens and TCRs that goes beyond their mere ability to induce high T-cell reactivity. Here, we propose a sequence of assays to improve selection of TCRs and exemplify risk assessments of on-target as well as off-target toxicities using TCRs directed against cancer germline antigens. The proposed panel of assays covers parameters considered key to safety, such as expression of target antigen in healthy tissues, determination of a TCR's recognition motif toward its cognate peptide, and a TCR's cross-reactivity toward noncognate peptides..

Adoptive T cell therapy has shown significant clinical success for patients with advanced melanoma and other tumors. Further development of T cell therapy requires improved strategies to select effective, yet nonself-reactive, TCRs. In this study, we isolated 10 TCR sequences against four MAGE-C2 (MC2) epitopes from melanoma patients who showed clinical responses following vaccination that were accompanied by significant frequencies of anti-MC2 CD8 T cells in blood and tumor without apparent side effects. We introduced these TCRs into T cells, pretreated tumor cells of different histological origins with the epigenetic drugs azacytidine and valproate, and tested tumor and self-reactivities of these TCRs. Pretreatment of tumor cells upregulated MC2 gene expression and enhanced recognition by T cells. In contrast, a panel of normal cell types did not express MC2 mRNA, and similar pretreatment did not result in recognition by MC2-directed T cells. Interestingly, the expression levels of MC2, but not those of CD80, CD86, or programmed death-ligand 1 or 2, correlated with T cell responsiveness. One of the tested TCRs consistently recognized pretreated MC2(+) cell lines from melanoma, head and neck, bladder, and triple-negative breast cancers but showed no response to MHC-eluted peptides or peptides highly similar to MC2. We conclude that targeting MC2 Ag, combined with epigenetic drug-enhanced antigenicity, allows for significant and tumor-selective T cell responses.

Purpose: Chemotherapy has long been the standard treatment for advanced stage non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), but checkpoint inhibitors are now approved for use in several patient groups and combinations. To design optimal combination strategies, a better understanding of the immunemodulatory capacities of conventional treatments is needed. Therefore, we investigated the immune-modulatory effects of paclitaxel/carboplatin/bevacizumab (PCB), focusing on the immune populations associated with the response to checkpoint inhibitors in peripheral blood.Experimental Design: A total of 223 patients with stage IV NSCLC, enrolled in the NVALT12 study, received PCB, with or without nitroglycerin patch. Peripheral blood was collected at baseline and after the first and second treatment cycle, proportions of T cells, B cells, and monocytes were determined by flow cytometry. Furthermore, several subsets of T cells and the expression of Ki67 and coinhibitory receptors on these subsets were determined.Results: Although proliferation of CD4 T cells remained stable following treatment, proliferation of peripheral blood CD8 T cells was significantly increased, particularly in the effector memory and CD45RA þ effector subsets. The proliferating CD8 T cells more highly expressed programmed death receptor (PD)-1 and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4) compared with nonproliferating CD8 T cells. Immunologic responders (iR; >2 fold increased proliferation after treatment) did not show an improved progression-free (PFS) or overall survival (OS).Conclusions: Paclitaxel/carboplatin/bevacizumab induces proliferation of CD8 T cells, consisting of effector cells expressing coinhibitory checkpoint molecules. Induction of proliferation was not correlated to clinical outcome in the current clinical setting. Our findings provide a rationale for combining PCB with checkpoint inhibition in lung cancer.

Cancer immune therapy, in particular the use of checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive transfer of T cells has recently demonstrated significant clinical responses against several tumor types. Unfortunately, these therapies are frequently accompanied by severe toxicities, underscoring the need for markers that provide information on therapy response. Monitoring immune responses in the tumor microenvironment and peripheral blood prior to and during these therapies will provide better insight into the mechanisms underlying clinical activities, and will potentially enable the identification of such markers. In this review, we present an overview of adoptive T-cell trials conducted with a special focus on immune monitoring, and argue that accurate monitoring of T cells is pivotal to further development of immune therapies to treat cancer.