The sclera is the tough outer covering of the eye that provides structural support and helps maintain intraocular pressure. In some fishes, reptiles, and birds, the sclera is reinforced with an additional ring of hyaline cartilage or bone that forms from scleral ossicles. Currently, the evolutionary and genetic basis of scleral ossification is poorly understood, especially in teleost fishes. We assessed scleral ossification among several groups of the Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus), which exhibit both an eyed and eyeless morph. Although eyed Astyanax surface fish have bony sclera similar to other teleosts, the ossicles of blind Astyanax cavefish generally do not form. We first sampled cavefish from multiple independent populations and used ancestral character state reconstructions to determine how many times scleral ossification has been lost. We then confirmed these results by assessing complementation of scleral ossification among the F1 hybrid progeny of two cavefish populations. Finally, we quantified the number of scleral ossicles present among the F2 hybrid progeny of a cross between surface fish and cavefish, and used this information to identify quantitative trait loci (QTL) responsible for this trait. Our results indicate that the loss of scleral ossification is common–but not ubiquitous–among Astyanax cavefish, and that this trait has been convergently lost at least three times. The presence of wild-type, ossified sclera among the F1 hybrid progeny of a cross between different cavefish populations confirms the convergent evolution of this trait. However, a strongly skewed distribution of scleral ossicles found among surface fish x cavefish F2 hybrids suggests that scleral ossification is a threshold trait with a complex genetic basis. Quantitative genetic mapping identified a single QTL for scleral ossification on Astyanax linkage group 1. We estimate that the threshold for this trait is likely determined by at least three genetic factors which may control the severity and onset of lens degeneration in cavefishes. We conclude that complex evolutionary and genetic patterns underlie the loss of scleral ossification in Astyanax cavefish.

Metastatic melanoma remains an incurable disease for many patients due to the limited success of targeted and immunotherapies. BRAF and MEK inhibitors reduce metastatic burden for patients with melanomas harboring BRAF mutations; however, most eventually relapse due to acquired resistance. Here, we demonstrate that ABL1/2 kinase activities and/or expression are potentiated in cell lines and patient samples following resistance, and ABL1/2 drive BRAF and BRAF/MEK inhibitor resistance by inducing reactivation of MEK/ERK/MYC signaling. Silencing/inhibiting ABL1/2 blocks pathway reactivation, and resensitizes resistant cells to BRAF/MEK inhibitors, whereas expression of constitutively active ABL1/2 is sufficient to promote resistance. Significantly, nilotinib (2nd generation ABL1/2 inhibitor) reverses resistance, in vivo, causing prolonged regression of resistant tumors, and also, prevents BRAFi/MEKi resistance from developing in the first place. These data indicate that repurposing the FDA-approved leukemia drug, nilotinib, may be effective for prolonging survival for patients harboring BRAF-mutant melanomas.

The sclera is the protective outer layer of the eye. In fishes, birds, and reptiles, the sclera may be reinforced with additional bony elements called scleral ossicles. Teleost fish vary in the number and size of scleral ossicles; however, the genetic mechanisms responsible for this variation remain poorly understood. In this study, we examine the inheritance of scleral ossicles in the Mexican tetra, Astyanax mexicanus, which exhibits both a cave morph and a surface fish morph. As these morphs and their hybrids collectively exhibit zero, one, and two scleral ossicles, they represent a microcosm of teleost scleral ossicle diversity. Our previous research in F2 hybrids of cavefish from Pachón cave and surface fish from Texas suggested that three genes likely influence the formation of scleral ossicles in this group through an epistatic threshold model of inheritance, though our sample size was small. In this study, we expand our sample size using additional hybrids of Pachón cavefish and Mexican surface fish to (1) confirm the threshold model of inheritance, (2) refine the number of genes responsible for scleral ossicle formation, and (3) increase our power to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) for this trait. To answer these three questions, we scored surface fish and cavefish F2 hybrids for the presence of zero, one, or two scleral ossicles. We then analyzed their distribution among the F2 hybrids using a chi-square (χ2) test, and used a genetic linkage map of over 100 microsatellite markers to identify QTL responsible for scleral ossicle number. We found that inheritance of scleral ossicles follows an epistatic threshold model of inheritance controlled by two genes, which contrasts the three-locus model estimated from our previous study. Finally, the combined analysis of hybrids from both crosses identified two strong QTL for scleral ossicle number on linkage groups 4.2 and 21, and a weaker QTL on linkage group 4.1. Scleral ossification remains a complex trait with limited knowledge of its genetic basis. This study provides new insight into the number and location of genes controlling the formation of scleral ossicles in a teleost fish species.

Melanomas harboring NRAS mutations are a particularly aggressive and deadly subtype. If patients cannot tolerate or the melanomas are insensitive to immune checkpoint blockade, there are no effective 2nd-line treatment options. Drugs targeting the RAF/MEK/ERK pathway, which are used for BRAF-mutant melanomas, do little to increase progression-free survival (PFS). Here, using both loss-of-function and gain-of-function approaches, we show that ABL1/2 and DDR1 are critical nodes during NRAS-mutant melanoma intrinsic and acquired MEK inhibitor (MEKi) resistance. In some acquired resistance cells, ABL1/2 and DDR1 cooperate to stabilize RAF proteins, activate ERK cytoplasmic and nuclear signaling, repress p27/KIP1 expression, and drive RAF homodimerization. In contrast, other acquired resistance cells depend solely on ABL1/2 for their survival, and are sensitive to highly specific allosteric ABL1/2 inhibitors, which prevent β-catenin nuclear localization and destabilize MYC and ETS1 in an ERK-independent manner. Significantly, targeting ABL1/2 and DDR1 with an FDA-approved anti-leukemic drug, reverses intrinsic MEKi resistance, delays acquisition of acquired resistance, and doubles the survival time in a NRAS-mutant mouse model. These data indicate that repurposing FDA-approved drugs targeting ABL1/2 and DDR1 may be a novel and effective strategy for treating patients with treatment-refractory NRAS-driven melanomas.