Brown-headed spider monkeys (Ateles fusciceps), endemic to the ChocoDarien forests and lower Andean forests of NW Ecuador, are considered critically endangered. Unfortunately, scientific data regarding the actual status of populations is lacking. We combined satellite image analysis, species-specific habitat assessment, and a field survey technique using playback to focus conservation efforts for this species. First, we identified remaining forest via a LANDSAT mosaic and then applied species-specific criteria to delineate remaining forest with potential to hold populations. By combining this with the historical distribution from ecological niche modeling and predicted hunting intensity we generated a species-specific landscape map. Within our study area, forest capable of sustaining Ateles fusciceps covers 5872 km 2 , of which 2172 km 2 (40%) is protected. Unprotected forest considered suitable for Ateles fusciceps extends to 3700 km 2 but within this only 989 km 2 (23%) is under low hunting pressure and likely to maintain healthy populations of Ateles fusciceps. To overcome problems of sampling at low primate density and in difficult mountain terrain we developed a field survey technique to determine Int presence and estimate abundance using acoustic sampling. For sites under low hunting pressure density of primates varied with altitude. Densities decreased from 7.49 individuals/km 2 at 332 masl to 0.9 individuals/km 2 at 1570 masl. Based on combining data sets in a gap analysis, we recommend conservation action focus on unprotected lowland forest to the south and west of the Cotacachi-Cayapas Ecological Reserve where hunting pressure is low and population densities of Ateles fusciceps are greatest.

Question: Identification of tropical tree species from low-cost, very high-resolution (VHR) proximal canopy remote sensing imagery has great potential for improving our understanding of tropical forest ecology. We investigated whether inter-crown pixel information from VHR imagery could be used for taxonomic identification of trees and characterization of successional stages of tropical Andean mountain forest.Location: Santa Lucia cloud forest reserve, NW Ecuadorian Andes. Methods:We gathered digital camera imagery (0.05-m spatial resolution), using a remote-controlled helicopter platform, from primary and secondary forest and identified visible crowns to species before extracting digital crown samples (2-m radius). Using an object-based approach, histogram descriptors and diversity metrics of pixel intensity in red, green and blue (RGB) bands were calculated for crowns, and patterns in similarity explored using ordination. Predictive models were developed and validated using four decision tree models (CHIAD, Exhaustive CHIAD, CRT and QUEST).Results: Aerial imagery represented 54% of families, 53% of genera and 56% of species sampled from the ground. Ordination (redundancy analysis) confirmed that inherent continuities, based on crown metrics, correlated with traditional species, genus and family groupings (P < 0.05). Data were best described by histogram means in the green band. The best predictive model (CRT) generated a 47% probability of correct species identification for 41 species -with similar success at genus and family level. Predictive ability was highly speciesspecific, ranging from zero for some taxa to 93% for Cecropia gabrielis Cuatrec. Conclusions: From the crown metrics tested, we found the mean pixel intensity in the green band was most effective in predicting species and species grouping of tropical mountain trees. This metric integrates species-specific differences in leaf density of crowns and reflectance in the green waveband. High predictive success for indicators of primary (Cornus peruviana J.F. Macbr.) and secondary forest (Cecropia gabrielis Cuatrec.) shows that VHR imagery can be used to identify species from pixel information to provide ecological information on successional status. Further research is needed to develop pattern and textural metrics specifically for hyperspatial digital imagery to identify tree species from crown imagery in diverse tropical forests.

The importance of forests for biodiversity conservation has been well recognized by the global community; as a result, conservation efforts have increased over the past two decades. In Ecuador, the lack of integrated information for defining and assessing the status of local ecosystems is a major challenge for designing conservation and restoration plans. Thus, the objectives of this study were (1) to examine the regeneration status of cloud forest remnants, some of which had experienced past human disturbance events, (2) to explore a local rural community’s traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) relevant for restoration and (3) to investigate the integration between TEK and ecological science-based approaches. A survey of regeneration status was conducted in four remnants of cloud forests (n = 16) in Cosanga, Napo Province, in the Andes of northeastern Ecuador. The species of young trees (0.5–5 m height) were identified over 0.16 ha. In-depth interviews of individuals from local communities (n = 48) were conducted to identify socio-ecologically important native species. The results showed significant differences (p < 0.001) in species richness and the stem density of seedlings and saplings in gaps. The stem density of Chusquea sp., a bamboo species, explained 63% of the variation in species richness and 48% of the variation in the abundance of seedlings and saplings between plots. Informants cited 32 socio-ecologically important species, of which 26 species were cited as sources of food and habitats for wildlife. The ranking of species based on a relative importance index and a cultural value index—taking into account both the spread of knowledge among local informants and the multiplicity of uses—revealed that Hyeromina duquei, Citharexylum montanum, Eugenia crassimarginata and Sapium contortum were traditionally the most valuable species for both humans and wildlife. Informants also recommended 27 species for future planting, of which 19 species were amongst the rarest species in the regeneration survey. In conclusion, the results demonstrate a synergy between TEK and ecological science-based approaches (regeneration survey) to natural ecosystem research. Thus, traditional ecological knowledge can provide insights into ecosystem–plant–animal interaction, and to identify native species useful for both humans and wildlife for forest restoration projects to reconnect isolated cloud forest fragments.

Tree diversity inventories were undertaken. The goal of this study was to understand changes in tree community dynamics that may result from common anthropogenic disturbances at the Reserva Los Cedros, a tropical montane cloud forest reserve in northern Andean Ecuador. The reserve shows extremely high alpha and beta tree diversity. We found that all primary forest sites, regardless of age of natural gaps, are quite ecologically resilient, appearing to return to a primary-forest-type community of trees following gap formation. In contrast, forests regenerating from anthropogenic disturbance appear to have multiple possible ecological states. Where anthropogenic disturbance was intense, novel tree communities appear to be assembling, with no indication of return to a primary forest state. Even in ancient primary forests, new forest types may be forming, as we found that seedling community composition did not resemble adult tree communities. We also suggest small watersheds as a useful basic spatial unit for understanding biodiversity patterns in the tropical Andes that confound more traditional Euclidean distance as a basic proxy of dissimilarity. Finally, we highlight the conservation value of Reserva Los Cedros, which has managed to reverse deforestation within its boundaries despite a general trend of extensive deforestation in the surrounding region, to protect a large, contiguous area of highly endangered Andean primary cloud forest.

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