Questions To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration techniques. What method results in the most timely and cost‐effective means of reinstating biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functions and services? Methods We explored the efficacy and costs of two re‐vegetation techniques commonly used in ecosystem restoration: direct seeding and planting of seedlings. Our analysis focused on 120 scientific peer‐reviewed publications reporting on experiments using seeds or seedlings, and encompassed a range of ecosystems such as wetlands, savannas and forests. We examined current restoration issues, including species diversity, survival, species selection, costs and how future climate change may influence restoration efforts. Results Direct seeding experiments used more species than seedling studies, yet showed lower survivorship. Species availability is the major constraint in the selection of which species were used, regardless of the approach employed. Although costs are extremely important when planning a restoration project, few published findings report on the economic aspects of ecosystem restoration. Further, we did not find any study addressing the impacts of global climate change on restoration programmes or how studies should consider future shifts in the environment. Conclusions Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species. Restoration efforts are in need of detailed reporting that includes time frames and costs. We need to consider future climate scenarios that will affect ecosystem restoration efforts.

We describe two cases of infanticide, two suspected infanticides, and a forced copulation by familiar resident males in two populations of wild spider monkeys (Ateles belzebuth chamek and A. geoffroyi yucatanensis). These are the first known infanticides and forced copulation in spider monkeys. Data were gathered from four neighboring communities of spider monkeys in Manu National Park at the Cocha Cashu Biological Station, Peru and two communities in the Otoch Ma'ax Yetel Kooh Reserve at Punta Laguna, Mexico, during intensive field studies of over 2,000 hr each. These are rare behaviors, but results suggest that mating history and sexual coercion are important in spider monkey social relationships.

Aims: Secondary forests are expanding rapidly in tropical regions and could play an important role in conserving native biodiversity and stabilising global climate. The recovery rate of plant communities in secondary forests varies considerably due to mechanisms associated with seed dispersal and recruitment dynamics. We explored these mechanisms along a chronosequence of tropical secondary forests in an agricultural landscape that was extensively cleared. Location: We explored these mechanisms along a chronosequence of secondary forests in tropical Australia. Methods: We used selected plant traits to characterise plant species and compared community composition between demographic stages (i.e. soil seedbank, understorey and overstorey) and forest age categories. We collected soil samples to assess seedbank composition and used quadrants and transects to assess understorey and overstorey plant community composition at each site. Results: For all demographic stages, we found that young (4-12 years) and intermediate-aged forests (16-20 years) were dominated by early successional, smallseeded species and traits associated with disturbed forests. In old secondary forest (23-34 years) some traits associated with late successional stages were present (e.g. large seeds, trees). However, the traits and species composition of mature forests remained distinct from all secondary forests. Across the chronosequence, forest age and demographic stage were significant factors in discriminating species and trait composition between forest sites. We found clear plant community similarities within demographic stages, despite the forest age differences. This suggests stronger limitations to dispersal and recruitment between demographic stages than between forest ages. Conclusions: Our results show that secondary forests in this region assemble slowly with dispersal and recruitment limitations constraining their recovery. Although a successional transition in species and plant traits composition along the chronosequence is clear, similarities to mature forests remain low. The slow recovery of late successional and large-seeded species in these secondary forests suggests that active restoration of such species may be necessary if we want to enhance the capacity of these forests to conserve native biodiversity.