The function of pancreatic β-cells is the synthesis and release of insulin, the main hormone involved in blood glucose homeostasis. Estrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ, are important molecules involved in glucose metabolism, yet their role in pancreatic β-cell physiology is still greatly unknown. In this report we show that both ERα and ERβ are present in pancreatic β-cells. Long term exposure to physiological concentrations of 17β-estradiol (E2) increased β-cell insulin content, insulin gene expression and insulin release, yet pancreatic β-cell mass was unaltered. The up-regulation of pancreatic β-cell insulin content was imitated by environmentally relevant doses of the widespread endocrine disruptor Bisphenol-A (BPA). The use of ERα and ERβ agonists as well as ERαKO and ERβKO mice suggests that the estrogen receptor involved is ERα. The up-regulation of pancreatic insulin content by ERα activation involves ERK1/2. These data may be important to explain the actions of E2 and environmental estrogens in endocrine pancreatic function and blood glucose homeostasis.

The molecular mechanism used by environmental chemicals to exert their hormone-like actions is still only partially resolved. Although it generally is accepted that xenoestrogens act at the genomic level by binding to intracellular estrogen receptors, we have shown here that they trigger nongenomic effects in pancreatic ␤ cells. Both xenoestrogens and the circulating hormone, 17␤-estradiol, bind with high affinity to a common membrane binding site unrelated to the intracellular estrogen receptors ER␣ and ER␤. This binding site is shared by dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine and has the pharmacological profile of the ␥-adrenergic receptor. This study provides an outline of the membrane receptor involved in rapid xenoestrogen actions.pancreatic ␤ cells ͉ confocal microscopy ͉ intracellular calcium ͉ cell signaling X enoestrogens are compounds that present estrogenic effects but whose chemical structure does not necessarily resemble that of steroid hormones. They are found in fresh water and are likely responsible for the feminization of male fish in several rivers of the United Kingdom and the decreased reproduction success of alligators and turtles in Lake Apopka in Florida (1, 2). These manmade chemicals enter the body by ingestion or adsorption and mimic the genomic actions of estrogens (3) via intracellular estrogen receptors (4-6).Less attention has been paid to nongenomic actions of xenoestrogens. Several studies have described that xenoestrogens mimic 17␤-estradiol when they act on Ca 2ϩ and K ϩ channels in smooth muscle cells (7) as well as when they trigger prolactin release from rat pituitary tumor cells (8). Yet, a direct link between an estrogen membrane binding site (9) and xenoestrogen actions is still a matter of debate. Moreover, despite the great number of studies about nongenomic actions of estrogens, a clear outline of the membrane receptor involved is still elusive.We have chosen three widely used xenoestrogens for our study: bisphenol-A (BPA), which is found in the content of canned food, dental sealants, and composites; diethylstilbestrol (DES), a synthetic estrogen used between the 1940s and the 1970s to prevent miscarriages; and the well-known pesticide (3,(10)(11)(12). We have focused our research on the effect of these agents on the signaling system of pancreatic ␤ cells, which are fundamental for the endocrine pancreas function. ␤ cells, which are situated within the islet of Langerhans, are responsible for insulin secretion after an increase of blood glucose. A dysfunction of this particular type of cells causes the widespread pathology diabetes mellitus. An estrogen binding site at the plasma membrane of pancreatic ␤ cells has been described (13). Once 17␤-estradiol binds to this site, cGMP increases, activating protein kinase G, which phosphorylates ATPdependent potassium channels (K ATP ), depolarizing the plasma membrane, and enhancing intracellular Ca 2ϩ concentration ([Ca 2ϩ ] i ) signals. As a consequence, insulin secretion is increased (13, 14).Here, we show that acute no...

. The pancreatic β-cell as a target of estrogens and xenoestrogens: Implications for blood glucose homeostasis and diabetes. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, Elsevier, 2009, 304 (1-2) Please cite this article as: Nadal, A., Alonso-Magdalena, P., Soriano, S., Quesada, I., Ropero, A.B., The pancreatic ␤-cell as a target of estrogens and xenoestrogens: Implications for blood glucose homeostasis and diabetes, Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology (2008), doi:10.1016/j.mce.2009 This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. THE PANCREATIC -CELL AS A TARGET OF ESTROGENS AND XENOESTROGENS: IMPLICATIONS FOR BLOOD GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS AND DIABETESAngel Rosen & Spiegelman, 2006;Fritsche et al., 2008). During the fasting state, insulin remains at low levels because plasma glucose concentration is low. In this situation, the levels of the counter-regulatory hormones, glucagon, adrenaline and corticosteroids are increased to promote hepatic glucose production. In contrast, insulin, the only hormone in the body able to decrease blood glucose levels, is increased during the fed state. Insulin decreases blood glucose by promoting adipocyte and muscle glucose uptake, as well as by preventing the liver from producing glucose by suppressing glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis (Fritsche et al., 2008). neurotransmitters, hormones and nutrients, among which glucose is the most important.Normally, in response to short glucose stimulation, insulin biosynthesis is regulated by the increased translation of the preproinsulin transcript. After a prolonged glucose exposure, however, it is regulated via the insulin gene transcription (Orland et al., 1985;Permutt & Rotwein, 1983;Poitout et al., 2006). Both transcriptional and translational regulation of insulin biosynthesis is essential to maintain the intracellular stores of insulin on a long term basis.The secretory response of -cells depends on their electrical activity. This consists of oscillations of the membrane potential that range from electrically silent periods to depolarised plateaus on which Ca 2+ -action potentials originate (Rorsman et al., 2000).The classical stimulus-secretion coupling that drives insulin release involves the closure of K ATP channels by increasing the intracellular ATP/ADP ratio (Ashcroft et al., 1984) and diadenosine polyphosphates concentration (DPs) (Ripoll et al., 1996) oscillatory pattern is originated (Nadal et al., 1999;Santos et al., 1991;Valdeolmillos et al., 1989), which triggers a pulsatile insulin secretion (Barbosa et al., 1998;Gilon et al., 1993;Dyachok et al., 2008). Estrogens, estrogen receptors and blood glucose homeostasisT...

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The link between endocrine disruptors and altered blood glucose homeostasis has been recently suggested. Epidemiological studies have correlated levels of phthalates, dioxins and persistent organic pollutants with alterations of blood glucose homeostasis in humans. Environmentally relevant doses of the ubiquitous endocrine disruptor bisphenol-A (BPA) have profound effects on mice endocrine pancreas--an essential tissue involved in glucose metabolism. BPA exerts rapid non-genomic effects on insulin releasing beta-cells and glucagon releasing alpha-cells within freshly isolated islets of Langerhans. In vivo, a single BPA injection of 10 microg/kg rapidly increases plasma insulin and concomitantly decreases glycaemia. When mice were treated with BPA 100 microg/kg/day for 4 days, the environmental oestrogen produced an increase in beta-cell insulin content along with a post-prandial hyperinsulinaemia and insulin resistance. The results reviewed here demonstrate that doses well below the current lowest observed adverse effect level considered by the US-EPA, disrupt pancreatic beta-cell function producing insulin resistance in male mice. Therefore, this altered blood glucose homeostasis by BPA exposure may enhance the risk of developing type II diabetes.

Pregnancy is characterized by peripheral insulin resistance, which is developed in parallel with a plasma increase of maternal hormones; these include prolactin, placental lactogens, progesterone and oestradiol among others. Maternal insulin resistance is counteracted by the adaptation of the islets of Langerhans to the higher insulin demand. If this adjustment is not produced, gestational diabetes may be developed. The adaptation process of islets is characterized by an increase of insulin biosynthesis, an enhanced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) and an increase of β-cell mass. It is not completely understood why, in some individuals, β-cell mass and function fail to adapt to the metabolic demands of pregnancy, yet a disruption of the β-cell response to maternal hormones may play a key part. The role of the maternal hormone 17β-oestradiol (E2) in this adaptation process has been largely unknown. However, in recent years, it has been demonstrated that E2 acts directly on β-cells to increase insulin biosynthesis and to enhance GSIS through different molecular mechanisms. E2 does not increase β-cell proliferation but it is involved in β-cell survival. Classical oestrogen receptors ERα and ERβ, as well as the G protein-coupled oestrogen receptor (GPER) seem to be involved in these adaptation changes. In addition, as the main production of E2 in post-menopausal women comes from the adipose tissue, E2 may act as a messenger between adipocytes and islets in obesity.

OBJECTIVELeptin released from adipocytes plays a key role in the control of food intake, energy balance, and glucose homeostasis. In addition to its central action, leptin directly affects pancreatic β-cells, inhibiting insulin secretion, and, thus, modulating glucose homeostasis. However, despite the importance of glucagon secretion in glucose homeostasis, the role of leptin in α-cell function has not been studied in detail. In the present study, we have investigated this functional interaction.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSThe presence of leptin receptors (ObR) was demonstrated by RT-PCR analysis, Western blot, and immunocytochemistry. Electrical activity was analyzed by patch-clamp and Ca2+ signals by confocal microscopy. Exocytosis and glucagon secretion were assessed using fluorescence methods and radioimmunoassay, respectively.RESULTSThe expression of several ObR isoforms (a–e) was detected in glucagon-secreting αTC1-9 cells. ObRb, the main isoform involved in leptin signaling, was identified at the protein level in αTC1-9 cells as well as in mouse and human α-cells. The application of leptin (6.25 nmol/l) hyperpolarized the α-cell membrane potential, suppressing the electrical activity induced by 0.5 mmol/l glucose. Additionally, leptin inhibited Ca2+ signaling in αTC1-9 cells and in mouse and human α-cells within intact islets. A similar result occurred with 0.625 nmol/l leptin. These effects were accompanied by a decrease in glucagon secretion from mouse islets and were counteracted by the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor, wortmannin, suggesting the involvement of this pathway in leptin action.CONCLUSIONSThese results demonstrate that leptin inhibits α-cell function, and, thus, these cells are involved in the adipoinsular communication.