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Inference ability is considered central to discourse processing and has been shown to be important across models of reading comprehension. To evaluate the impact of inference instruction, a meta-analysis of 25 inference studies in Grades K–12 was conducted. Results showed that inference instruction was effective for increasing students’ general comprehension, d = 0.58, inferential comprehension, d = 0.68, and literal comprehension, d = 0.28. Although skilled and less skilled readers responded similarly on general and inference outcomes, less skilled readers benefited more on literal outcomes, d = 0.97, than skilled readers, d = 0.06. Findings suggest that students can increase their inference ability and that less skilled readers gain the extra benefit of increases in literal comprehension. Findings also suggest that instruction provided in small groups is beneficial for increasing readers’ inferential understanding of text.

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To increase reading comprehension, educators will need to provide early and sustained instruction in knowledge, vocabulary, inference generation, and comprehension monitoring. Key Points • • Improving adolescent reading comprehension will require a concerted effort from researchers, educators, and policy makers to forgo short-term gains on measures that tap low-level comprehension for long-term solutions that take years to develop. • • An early and sustained focus on developing background knowledge, vocabulary, inference, and comprehension monitoring skills is necessary to improve reading comprehension across grade levels. • • Despite decades of reading comprehension research, a limited amount of time is spent using evidence-based methods in classrooms. • • Education leaders will need to strengthen teacher preparation programs and professional development to ensure teachers are prepared to use evidence-based practices to meet the literacy needs of their students.