No abstract
As a result of insuffi cient appropriations for energy-related projects at federal sites, the Department of Energy (DOE) Offi ce of Federal Energy Management Programs (FEMP) has encouraged the use of alternative fi nancing as a method to fund energy effi ciency, water conservation, and renewable energy capital retrofi t projects. One of the potential avenues for agencies to obtain alternative fi nancing is through their servicing utility. Since the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT), more than 1,200 projects have been facilitated in this manner. The amount of the capital investment per project has varied markedly, depending on the need of the federal agency, number of facilities at a specifi c site, and nature of the retrofi t technology.To promote the use of this fi nancing mechanism, FEMP created the Federal Utility Partnership Working Group to foster enhanced relationships between utilities and both federal agencies and their sites so projects could be identifi ed, designed, fi nanced, and constructed. Formation of this working group also allowed FEMP the opportunity to collect, on a voluntary basis, specifi c information regarding individual projects to document results, which could assist in determining the contribution to mandated energy saving goals.Accurate and complete data existed for 528 of these projects to allow an analysis of total energy savings as a function of capital cost. Projects that consisted of the category labeled controls/upgrades/repairs yielded the largest energy savings per capital dollar of investment (-14,500 Btu per dollar). Other projects with high energy savings per capital dollar of investment included comprehensive upgrades, central plant upgrades, boiler/chiller replacement, and lighting and mechanical system upgrades. This article summarizes the fi ndings from the analysis, provides some insight into the types of projects that yield the best savings per dollar of investment, and discusses possible explanations for the results.
SummaryAs the model energy codes are improved to reach efficiency levels 50 percent greater than current codes, installation of on-site renewable energy generation is likely to become a code requirement. This requirement will be needed because traditional mechanisms for code improvement, including the building envelope, mechanical systems, and lighting, have been maximized at the most cost-effective limit.Research has been conducted to determine the mechanism for implementing this requirement (Kaufman 2011). Kaufmann et al. determined that the most appropriate way to structure an on-site renewable requirement for commercial buildings is to define the requirement in terms of an installed power density per unit of roof area. This provides a mechanism that is suitable for the installation of photovoltaic (PV) systems on future buildings to offset electricity and reduce the total building energy load. Kaufmann et al. suggested that an appropriate maximum for the requirement in the commercial sector would be 4 W/ft 2 of roof area or 0.5 W/ft 2 of conditioned floor area.As with all code requirements, there must be an alternative compliance path for buildings that may not reasonably meet the renewables requirement. This might include conditions like shading (which makes rooftop PV arrays less effective), unusual architecture, undesirable roof pitch, unsuitable building orientation, or other issues. In the short term, alternative compliance paths including high performance mechanical equipment, dramatic envelope changes, or controls changes may be feasible. These options may be less expensive than many renewable systems, which will require careful balance of energy measures when setting the code requirement levels. As the stringency of the code continues to increase however, efficiency trade-offs will be maximized, requiring alternative compliance options to be focused solely on renewable electricity trade-offs or equivalent programs.One alternate compliance path includes purchase of Renewable Energy Credits (RECs). Each REC represents a specified amount of renewable electricity production and provides an offset of environmental externalities associated with non-renewable electricity production. The purpose of this paper is to explore the possible issues with RECs and comparable alternative compliance options. Existing codes have been examined to determine energy equivalence between the energy generation requirement and the RECs alternative over the life of the building. The price equivalence of the requirement and the alternative are determined to consider the economic drivers for a market decision.This research includes case studies that review how the few existing codes have incorporated RECs and some of the issues inherent with REC markets. Section 1 of the report reviews compliance options including RECs, green energy purchase programs, shared solar agreements and leases, and other options.Section 2 provides detailed case studies on codes that include RECs and community based alternative compliance methods. The met...
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