The mechanisms by which exposure to particulate matter increases the risk of cardiovascular events are not known. Recent human and animal data suggest that particulate matter may induce alterations in hemostatic factors. In this study we determined the mechanisms by which particulate matter might accelerate thrombosis. We found that mice treated with a dose of well characterized particulate matter of less than 10 μM in diameter exhibited a shortened bleeding time, decreased prothrombin and partial thromboplastin times (decreased plasma clotting times), increased levels of fibrinogen, and increased activity of factor II, VIII, and X. This prothrombotic tendency was associated with increased generation of intravascular thrombin, an acceleration of arterial thrombosis, and an increase in bronchoalveolar fluid concentration of the prothrombotic cytokine IL-6. Knockout mice lacking IL-6 were protected against particulate matter-induced intravascular thrombin formation and the acceleration of arterial thrombosis. Depletion of macrophages by the intratracheal administration of liposomal clodronate attenuated particulate matter-induced IL-6 production and the resultant prothrombotic tendency. Our findings suggest that exposure to particulate matter triggers IL-6 production by alveolar macrophages, resulting in reduced clotting times, intravascular thrombin formation, and accelerated arterial thrombosis. These results provide a potential mechanism linking ambient particulate matter exposure and thrombotic events.

The neural crest, a population of multipotent progenitor cells, is a defining feature of vertebrate embryos. Neural crest precursor cells arise at the neural plate border in response to inductive signals, but much remains to be learned about the molecular mechanisms underlying their induction. Here we show that the protooncogene c-Myc is an essential early regulator of neural crest cell formation in Xenopus. c-myc is localized at the neural plate border prior to the expression of early neural crest markers, such as slug. A morpholino-mediated "knockdown" of c-Myc protein results in the absence of neural crest precursor cells and a resultant loss of neural crest derivatives. These effects are not dependent upon changes in cell proliferation or cell death. Instead, our findings reveal an important and unexpected role for c-Myc in the specification of cell fates in the early ectoderm.

The molecular mechanisms of pulmonary fibrosis are poorly understood. Previous reports indicate that activation of TGF-␤1 is essential for the development of pulmonary fibrosis. Here, we report that the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bid is required for the development of pulmonary fibrosis after the intratracheal instillation of bleomycin. Mice lacking Bid exhibited significantly less pulmonary fibrosis in response to bleomycin compared with WT mice. The attenuation in pulmonary fibrosis was observed despite similar levels of inflammation, lung injury, and active TGF-␤1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid 5 days after the administration of bleomycin in mice lacking Bid and in WT controls. Bleomycin induced similar levels cell death in vitro in alveolar epithelial cells isolated from WT and bid ؊/؊ mice. By contrast, alveolar epithelial cells from bid ؊/؊ mice were resistant to TGF-␤1-induced cell death. These results indicate that Bcl-2 family members are critical regulators for the development of pulmonary fibrosis downstream of TGF-␤1 activation.apoptosis ͉ Bcl-2 ͉ TGF-␤

These results indicate that leptin can induce and that resistance to leptin attenuates hyperoxia-induced lung injury and hyperoxia-induced inflammatory cytokines in the lung.

Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that regulates cell function through G protein-coupled receptors that activate or inhibit adenylyl cyclase. Based on the understanding that cAMP regulates alveolar epithelial active Na ؉ transport, we hypothesized that adenosine and its receptors have the potential to regulate alveolar ion transport and airspace fluid content. Herein, we report that type 1 (A1R), 2a (A2aR), 2b (A2bR), and 3 (A3R) adenosine receptors are present in rat and mouse lungs and alveolar type 1 and 2 epithelial cells (AT1 and AT2). Rat AT2 cells generated and produced cAMP in response to adenosine, and micromolar concentrations of adenosine were measured in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from mice. Ussing chamber studies of rat AT2 cells indicated that adenosine affects ion transport through engagement of A1R, A2aR, and/or A3R through a mechanism that increases CFTR and amiloride-sensitive channel function. Intratracheal instillation of low concentrations of adenosine (<10 ؊8 M) or either A2aR-or A3R-specific agonists increased alveolar fluid clearance (AFC), whereas physiologic concentrations of adenosine (>10 ؊6 M) reduced AFC in mice and rats via an A1R-dependent pathway. Instillation of a CFTR inhibitor (CFTRinh-172) attenuated adenosine-mediated down-regulation of AFC, suggesting that adenosine causes Cl ؊ efflux by means of CFTR. These studies report a role for adenosine in regulation of alveolar ion transport and fluid clearance. These findings suggest that physiologic concentrations of adenosine allow the alveolar epithelium to counterbalance active Na ؉ absorption with Cl ؊ efflux through engagement of the A1R and raise the possibility that adenosine receptor ligands can be used to treat pulmonary edema.active sodium transport ͉ adenosine receptors ͉ cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator P ulmonary edema is due to increased fluid flux into the airspace and impairment of the active Na ϩ transport that clears it (1-4). A variety of approaches to improve alveolar epithelial cell active Na ϩ transport for purposes of accelerating alveolar fluid clearance (AFC) have been explored in experimental systems. Of particular interest are receptor-ligand interactions that increase cAMP production in alveolar epithelial cells. Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that signals through four distinct G protein-coupled receptors, type 1 (A 1 R), type 2a (A 2a R), type 2b (A 2b R), and type 3 (A 3 R). In most cell systems, the A 1 R and A 3 R receptors inhibit adenylyl cyclase and/or lead to signaling through inositol-3-phosphate and phospholipase C. Engagement of type 2 receptors activates adenylyl cyclase by means of Gs␣ and increases cAMP levels. The ability of adenosine receptors (ARs) to couple to adenylyl cyclase led us to hypothesize that ARs might participate in regulation of alveolar epithelial active Na ϩ transport. We approached this hypothesis in rats and mice by testing whether adenosine and its receptors are present in the distal airspace and whether they affect AFC in vivo and vectorial Na ϩ...

Summary Enteric bacterial pathogens have evolved sophisticated strategies to evade host immune defences. Some pathogens deliver anti-inflammatory effector molecules into the host cell cytoplasm via a type III secretion system (T3SS). Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) inhibits inflammation by an undefined, T3SS-dependent mechanism. Two proteins encoded outside of the EPEC locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) pathogenicity island, non-LEE-encoded effector H1 (NleH1) and H2 (NleH2), display sequence similarity to Shigella flexneri OspG, which inhibits activation of the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB. We hypothesized that the anti-inflammatory effects of EPEC were mediated by NleH1 and NleH2. In this study, we examined the effect of NleH1/H2 on the NF-κB pathway. We show that NleH1/H2 are secreted via the T3SS and that transfection of cells with plasmids harbouring nleH1 or nleH2 decreased IKK-β-induced NF-κB activity and attenuated TNF-α-induced degradation of phospho-IκBα by preventing ubiquitination. Serum KC levels were higher in mice infected with ΔnleH1H2 than those infected with WT EPEC, indicating that NleH1/H2 dampen pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. ΔnleH1H2 was cleared more rapidly than WT EPEC while complementation of ΔnleH1H2 with either NleH1 or NleH2 prolonged colonization. Together, these data show that NleH1 and NleH2 function to dampen host inflammation and facilitate EPEC colonization during pathogenesis.

Rationale: Acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome are common clinical syndromes resulting largely from the accumulation of and inability to clear pulmonary edema, due to injury to the alveolar epithelium. Gene therapy may represent an important alternative for the treatment and prevention of these diseases by restoring alveolar epithelial function. We have recently developed an electroporation strategy to transfer genes to the lungs of mice, with high efficiency and low inflammation. Objectives: We asked whether electroporation-mediated transfer of genes encoding subunits of the Na 1 ,K 1 -ATPase could protect from LPS-induced lung injury or be used to treat already injured lungs by up-regulating mechanisms of pulmonary edema clearance. Methods: Plasmids were delivered to the lungs of mice using transthoracic electroporation. Lung injury was induced by intratracheal administration of LPS (4 mg/kg body weight). Biochemical, cellular, and physiologic measurements were taken to assess gene transfer and lung injury. Measurements and Main Results: Improvements in wet-to-dry ratios, pulmonary effusions, bronchoalveolar lavage protein levels and cellularity, alveolar fluid clearance, and respiratory mechanics were seen after delivery of plasmids expressing Na 1 ,K 1 -ATPase subunits, but not control plasmids, in LPS-injured lungs. Delivery of plasmids expressing Na 1 ,K 1 -ATPase subunits both protected from subsequent lung injury and partially reversed existing lung injury by these measures.Conclusions: These results demonstrate that electroporation can be used effectively in healthy and injured lungs to facilitate gene delivery and expression. To our knowledge, this is the first successful use of gene delivery to treat existing lung injury, and may have future clinical potential.

Shiga toxin (Stx) is implicated in the development of hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic-uremic syndrome, but early symptoms of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) infection such as non-bloody diarrhea may be Stx-independent. In this study, we defined the effects of EHEC, in the absence of Stx, on the intestinal epithelium using a murine model. EHEC colonization of intestines from two groups of antibiotic-free and streptomycin-treated C57Bl/6J mice were characterized and compared. EHEC colonized the cecum and colon more efficiently than the ileum in both groups; however, greater amounts of tissue-associated EHEC were detected in streptomycin-pretreated mice. Imaging of intestinal tissues of mice infected with bioluminescent EHEC further confirmed tight association of the bacteria to the cecum and colon. Greater numbers of EHEC were also cultured from stool of streptomycin-pretreated mice, as compared to those that received no antibiotic. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that EHEC infection leads to microvillous effacement of mouse colonocytes. Hematoxylin and eosin staining of colonic tissues of infected mice revealed a slight increase in the number of lamina propria polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Transmucosal electrical resistance, a measure of epithelial barrier function, was reduced in colonic tissues of infected animals. Increased mucosal permeability to 4KDa FITC-Dextran was also observed in colonic tissues of infected mice. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that EHEC infection resulted in redistribution of the tight junction proteins occludin and claudin-3 and increased expression of claudin-2 while ZO-1 localization remained unaltered. Quantitative real-time PCR revealed that EHEC altered mRNA transcription of Ocln, Cldn2 and Cldn3. Most notably, claudin-2 expression was significantly increased and correlated with increased intestinal permeability. Our data indicate that C57Bl/6J mice serve as an in vivo model to study the physiological effects of EHEC infection on the intestinal epithelium and suggest that altered transcription of tight junction proteins plays a role in the increase in intestinal permeability.