Micro- and nano-carrier formulations have been developed as drug delivery systems for active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) that suffer from poor physico-chemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacodynamic properties. Encapsulating the APIs in such systems can help improve their stability by protecting them from harsh conditions such as light, oxygen, temperature, pH, enzymes, and others. Consequently, the API’s dissolution rate and bioavailability are tremendously improved. Conventional techniques used in the production of these drug carrier formulations have several drawbacks, including thermal and chemical stability of the APIs, excessive use of organic solvents, high residual solvent levels, difficult particle size control and distributions, drug loading-related challenges, and time and energy consumption. This review illustrates how supercritical fluid (SCF) technologies can be superior in controlling the morphology of API particles and in the production of drug carriers due to SCF’s non-toxic, inert, economical, and environmentally friendly properties. The SCF’s advantages, benefits, and various preparation methods are discussed. Drug carrier formulations discussed in this review include microparticles, nanoparticles, polymeric membranes, aerogels, microporous foams, solid lipid nanoparticles, and liposomes.

Chemically cross-linked hydrogels are promising systems for protein delivery applications, but their utility may be limited due to the possibility of protein reaction with hydrogel precursors. Herein, a catalyst-free inverse-demand Diels-Alder reaction between tetrazine and norbornene groups was used to demonstrate the bio-orthogonal nature of cross-linking chemistry that is chemically inert to proteins. Tetrazine-modified hyaluronic acid and norbornene-modified polyethylene glycol were used as hydrogel precursors for in situ encapsulation of a model protein, Fab1. Measurement of gelation kinetics demonstrates that network formation and gel stiffness are temperature-dependent but independent of Fab1 concentration. In vitro release testing shows that Fab1 is completely released from the hydrogel matrix over a period of several weeks. Analytical characterization suggests that Fab1 is released without any physical or chemical modifications and retains its antigen binding capacity. Thus, the bio-orthogonal and catalyst-free aqueous phase chemistry enables efficient in situ protein encapsulation in a single step and provides sustained protein release.

These data demonstrate a lack of tolerability of PLGA microspheres upon intravitreal injection, and suggest that the size, shape, and/or surface area of PLGA depots are critical attributes in determining ocular toxicity.

PurposeDevelopment of therapeutics for retinal disease with improved durability is hampered by inadequate understanding of pharmacokinetic (PK) drivers following intravitreal injection. Previous work shows that hydrodynamic radius is correlated with vitreal half-life over the range of 3 to 7 nm, and that charge and hydrophobicity influence systemic clearance. Better understanding the molecular attributes affecting vitreal elimination half-life enables improved design of therapeutics and enhances clinical translatability.MethodsImpacts of charge and hydrophobicity on vitreal PK in the rabbit were systematically assessed using antibody and antibody fragment (Fab) variant series, including ranibizumab, altered through amino acid changes in hypervariable regions of the light chain. The impact of molecule size on vitreal PK was assessed in the rabbit, nonhuman primate, and human for a range of molecules (1–45 nm, net charge −1324 to +22.9 in rabbit), including published and internal data.ResultsNo correlation was observed between vitreal PK and charge or hydrophobicity. Equivalent rabbit vitreal PK was observed for ranibizumab and its variants with isoelectric points (pI) in the range of 6.8 to 10.2, and hydrophobicities of the variable domain unit (FvHI) between 1009 and 1296; additional variant series had vitreal PK similarly unaffected by pI (5.4–10.2) and FvHI (1004–1358). Strong correlations were observed between vitreal half-life and hydrodynamic radius for preclinical species (R2 = 0.8794–0.9366).ConclusionsDiffusive properties of soluble large molecules, as quantified by hydrodynamic radius, make a key contribution to vitreal elimination, whereas differences in charge or hydrophobicity make minor or negligible contributions.Translational RelevanceThese results support estimation of vitreal elimination rates based on molecular size in relevant preclinical species and humans.

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