Early childhood is an important period of sensory, motor, cognitive and socio-emotional maturation, yet relatively little is known about the brain changes specific to this period. Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) is a technique to estimate regional brain volumes from magnetic resonance (MR) images. The default VBM processing pipeline can be customized to increase accuracy of segmentation and normalization, yet the impact of customizations on analyses in young children are not clear. Here, we assessed the impact of different preprocessing steps on T1-weighted MR images from typically developing children in two separate cohorts. Data were processed with the Computational Anatomy Toolbox (CAT12), using seven different VBM pipelines with distinct combinations of tissue probability maps (TPMs) and DARTEL templates created using the Template-O-Matic, and CerebroMatic. The first cohort comprised female children aged 3.9–7.9 years (N = 62) and the second included boys and girls aged 2.7–8 years (N = 74). We found that pipelines differed significantly in their tendency to classify voxels as grey or white matter and the conclusions about some age effects were pipeline-dependent. Our study helps to both understand age-associations in grey and white matter volume across early childhood and elucidate the impact of VBM customization on brain volumes in this age range.
There is growing interest in how exposure to videogames is associated with young children’s development. While videogames may displace time from developmentally important activities and have been related to lower reading skills, work in older children and adolescents has suggested that experience with attention-demanding/fast-reaction games positively associates with attention and visuomotor skills. In the current study, we assessed 154 children aged 4–7 years (77 male; mean age 5.38) whose parents reported average daily weekday recreational videogame time, including information about which videogames were played. We investigated associations between videogame exposure and children’s sustained, selective, and executive attention skills. We found that videogame time was significantly positively associated only with selective attention. Longitudinal studies are needed to elucidate the directional association between time spent playing recreational videogames and attention skills.
Functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging (FC-MRI) has been widely used to investigate neurodevelopment. However, FC-MRI is vulnerable to head motion, which is associated with age and distorts FC estimates. Numerous preprocessing strategies have been developed to mitigate confounds, each with advantages and drawbacks. Preprocessing strategies for FC-MRI have typically been validated and compared using resting state data from adults. However, FC-MRI in young children presents a unique challenge due to relatively high head motion and a growing use of passive viewing paradigms to mitigate motion. This highlights a need to compare processing choices in pediatric samples. To this end, we leveraged longitudinal, passive viewing fMRI data collected from 4 to 8-year-old children. We systematically investigated combinations of widely used and debated preprocessing strategies, namely global signal regression, volume censoring, ICA-AROMA, and bandpass filtering. We implemented commonly used metrics of noise removal (i.e. quality control-functional connectivity), metrics sensitive to individual differences (i.e. connectome fingerprinting), and, because data was collected during a passive viewing task, we also assessed the impact on stimulus-evoked responses (i.e. intersubject correlations; ISC). We found that the most efficacious pipeline included censoring, global signal regression, bandpass filtering, and head motion parameter regression. Despite the drawbacks of noise-mitigation steps, our findings show benefits for both noise removal and information retention in a high-motion early childhood sample.
BackgroundThe brain’s white matter undergoes profound changes during early childhood, which are believed to underlie the rapid development of cognitive and behavioral skills during this period. Neurite density, and complexity of axonal projections, have been shown to change across the life span, though changes during early childhood are poorly characterized. Here, we utilize neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI) to investigate maturational changes in tract-wise neurite density index (NDI) and orientation dispersion index (ODI) during early childhood. Additionally, we assess hemispheric asymmetry of tract-wise NDI and ODI values, and longitudinal changes.MethodsTwo sets of diffusion weighted images (DWI) with different diffusion-weighting were collected from 125 typically developing children scanned at baseline (N=125; age range=4.14-7.29; F/M=73/52), 6-month (N=8; F/M=8/0), and 12-month (N=52; F/M=39/13) timepoints. NODDI and template-based tractography using constrained spherical deconvolution were utilized to calculate NDI and ODI values for major white matter tracts. Mixed-effects models controlling for sex, handedness, and in-scanner head motion were utilized to assess developmental changes in tract-wise NDI and ODI. Paired t-tests were used to assess interhemispheric differences in tract-wise NDI and ODI values and longitudinal changes in cross-sectional and 12-month longitudinal analyses, respectively.ResultsMaturational increases in NDI were seen in all major white matter tracts, though we did not observe the expected tract-wise pattern of maturational rates (e.g. fast commissural/projection and slow frontal/temporal tract change). ODI did not change significantly with age in any tract. We observed higher cross-sectional NDI and ODI values in the right as compared to the left hemisphere for most tracts, but no hemispheric asymmetry for longitudinal changes.ConclusionsThese findings suggest that neurite density, but not orientation dispersion, increases with age during early childhood. In relation to NDI growth trends reported in infancy and late-childhood, our results suggest that early childhood may be a transitional period for neurite density maturation wherein commissural/projection fibers are approaching maturity, maturation in long range association fibers is increasing, and changes in limbic/frontal fibers remain modest. Rightward asymmetry in NDI and ODI values, but not longitudinal changes, suggests that rightward asymmetry of neurite density and orientation dispersion is established prior to age 4.
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