Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have shown high efficacy in clinical trials, yet a full immunologic characterization of these vaccines, particularly within the human upper respiratory tract, is less well known. Here, we enumerate and phenotype T cells in nasal mucosa and blood using flow cytometry before and after vaccination with the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine (n = 21). Tissue-resident memory (Trm) CD8+ T cells expressing CD69+CD103+ increase in number ~12 days following the first and second doses, by 0.31 and 0.43 log10 cells per swab respectively (p = 0.058 and p = 0.009 in adjusted linear mixed models). CD69+CD103+CD8+ T cells in the blood decrease post-vaccination. Similar increases in nasal CD8+CD69+CD103− T cells are observed, particularly following the second dose. CD4+ cells co-expressing CCR6 and CD161 are also increased in abundance following both doses. Stimulation of nasal CD8+ T cells with SARS-CoV-2 spike peptides elevates expression of CD107a at 2- and 6-months (p = 0.0096) post second vaccine dose, with a subset of donors also expressing increased cytokines. These data suggest that nasal T cells may be induced and contribute to the protective immunity afforded by this vaccine.

In the development of vaccines, the ability to initiate both innate and subsequent adaptive immune responses need to be considered. Live attenuated vaccines achieve this naturally, while inactivated and sub-unit vaccines generally require additional help provided through delivery systems and/or adjuvants. Liposomes present an attractive adjuvant/delivery system for antigens. Here, we review the key aspects of immunity against Plasmodium parasites, liposome design considerations and their current application in the development of a malaria vaccine.

Here, the anti-malarial activity of two gold(i) phosphine compounds auranofin and [Au(d2pype)]Cl (where d2pype is 1,2-bis(di-2-pyridylphosphino)ethane), were examined to inform their use as potential drugs and malaria parasite-attenuating agents. In vitro, the gold compounds were active against Plasmodium falciparum and P. knowlesi as well as the rodent parasite P. chabaudi AS. Attenuation of the parasite was observed when mice were inoculated with P. chabaudi AS infected red blood cells treated in vitro with [Au(d2pype)]Cl (1 or 2 μM) or auranofin (2 μM) for 2 or 3 h. Quantitative PCR data showed persistence of low levels of parasite DNA up to 8 days post inoculation. In some experiments, there was microscopically detectable parastiemia following inoculation which subsequently cleared. Following 1 or 3 doses of gold compound-treated parasitized red blood cells (pRBCs), protection was not observed when these mice were subsequently challenged with wild type P. chabaudi AS. In experiments where microscopically detectable parasites were observed following in vivo inoculation, mice were subsequently fully protected against a challenge infection with wildtype parasites. In an infect-and-treat rodent model, the gold compounds were unable to inhibit P. chabaudi AS growth in vivo when administered orally. Gold compounds act via the inhibition of antioxidant systems which are critical in the pathogen's survival from attack by the host oxidants. In vitro, they directly inhibit the parasite thioredoxin reductase, hence the observed suppressive activity. On the other hand, in vivo, the gold compounds may not be readily available for absorption and thus pharmacokinetic studies will be required to further examine drug bioavailability following administration. With structural differences in redox mechanisms of P. falciparum and the human host being identified, gold compounds can be better designed to more efficiently target and selectively inhibit the parasite.

Naturally acquired immunity to malaria is robust and protective against all strains of the same species of Plasmodium. This develops as a result of repeated natural infection, taking several years to develop.

BackgroundThe malaria burden in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has fallen substantially. Nevertheless, malaria remains a serious health concern, and Uganda ranks third in SSA in total malaria burden. Epidemiological studies of adult malaria in Uganda are scarce and little is known about rates of malaria in non-pregnant adult women. This pilot study assessed malaria prevalence among adult women from Wakiso district, historically a highly malaria endemic region.MethodsAdult women using public health services were screened for malaria, HIV and pregnancy. A physician-selected subset of women presenting to the Outpatient Department of Entebbe General Hospital (EGH) with current fever (axillary temperature ≥37.5 °C) or self-reporting fever during the previous 24 h, and a positive thick smear for malaria in the EGH laboratory were enrolled (n = 86). Women who self-identified as pregnant or HIV-positive were excluded from screening. Malaria infection was then assessed using HRP2/pLDH rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs) in all participants. Repeat microscopy and PCR were performed at a research laboratory for a subset of participants. In addition, 104 women without a history of fever were assessed for asymptomatic parasitaemia using RDT, and a subset of these women screened for parasitaemia using microscopy (40 women) and PCR (40 women).ResultsOf 86 women diagnosed with malaria by EGH, only two (2.3%) had malaria confirmed using RDT, subsequently identified as a Plasmodium falciparum infection by research microscopy and PCR. Subset analysis of hospital diagnosed RDT-negative participants detected one sub-microscopic infection with Plasmodium ovale. Compared to RDT, sensitivity, specificity and PPV of hospital microscopy were 100% (CI 19.8–100), 0% (CI 0–5.32) and 2.33% (CI 0.403–8.94) respectively. Compared to PCR, sensitivity, specificity and PPV of hospital microscopy were 100% (CI 31.0–100), 0% (CI 0–34.5) and 23.1% (CI 6.16–54.0), respectively. No malaria was detected among asymptomatic women using RDT, research microscopy or PCR.ConclusionsMalaria prevalence among adult women appears to be low in Wakiso, but is masked by high rates of malaria overdiagnosis. More accurate malaria testing is urgently needed in public hospitals in this region to identify true causes of febrile illness and reduce unnecessary provision of anti-malarial therapy.

Background Schistosoma mansoni infection has been associated with an increased HIV prevalence in humans and SHIV incidence in primate models. We hypothesized that immune activation from this gastrointestinal mucosa infection would increase highly HIV-susceptible CD4 T cell subsets in the blood and the foreskin through common mucosal homing.Methodology/Principal FindingsForeskin tissue and blood were obtained from 34 HIV- and malaria-uninfected Ugandan men who volunteered for elective circumcision, 12 of whom were definitively positive for S. mansoni eggs in stool and 12 definitively negative for both S. mansoni eggs and worm antigen. Tissue and blood T cell subsets were characterized by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry (IHC). Th17 and Th1 cells from both the blood and foreskin expressed higher levels of CCR5 and were more activated than other CD4 T cell subsets. S. mansoni-infected men had a higher frequency of systemic Th1 cells (22.9 vs. 16.5% of blood CD4 T cells, p<0.05), Th17 cells (2.3 vs. 1.5%, p<0.05), and Th22 cells (0.5 vs. 0.3%, p<0.01) than uninfected men. Additionally, Th17 cells in the blood of S. mansoni-infected men demonstrated enhanced function (28.1 vs. 16.3% producing multiple cytokines, p = 0.046). However, these immune alterations were not observed in foreskin tissue.Conclusions/Significance S. mansoni infection was associated with an increased frequency of highly HIV-susceptible Th1, Th17 and Th22 cell subsets in the blood, but these T cell immune differences did not extend to the foreskin. S. mansoni induced changes in T cell immunology mediated through the common mucosal immune system are not likely to increase HIV susceptibility in the foreskin.

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Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have shown high efficacy in clinical trials, yet a full immunologic characterization of these vaccines, particularly within the upper respiratory tract, remains lacking. We enumerated and phenotyped T cells in nasal mucosa and blood before and after vaccination with the Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine (n =21). Tissue-resident memory (Trm) CD8+ T cells expressing CD69+CD103+ expanded ~12 days following the first and second doses, by 0.31 and 0.43 log10 cells per swab respectively (p=0.058 and p=0.009 in adjusted linear mixed models). CD69+CD103+CD8+ T cells in the blood decreased post-vaccination. Similar increases in nasal CD8+CD69+CD103- T cells were observed, particularly following the second dose. CD4+ Th17 cells were also increased in abundance following both doses. Following stimulation with SARS-CoV-2 spike peptides, CD8+ T cells increased expression of CD107a and CD154. These data suggest that nasal T cells may be induced and contribute to the protective immunity afforded by this vaccine.