This article reports on four United States studies of how rewards systems, extrinsic and intrinsic, could play an important role in providing incentives for university faculty to teach (or remain teaching) electronic and distance education courses. The first three studies conducted prior to 2003 reported faculty were inherently motivated to teach e-learning and distance education. The fourth study in 2003 reported key findings that differed from the earlier studies. Using a principal components analysis, the researchers found nine indicators of motivation to participate or not participate in electronic or distance education. The implications from the fourth study indicated that, while faculty members were inherently committed to helping students, faculty members wanted their basic physiological needs met by university administration through extrinsic motivators, such as salary increases and course releases.The success of electronic, web-based, courses (e-courses) depends not only upon the schools and universities, but also on the faculty and adjunct instructors who teach these courses. Yet few studies have addressed what motivates or deters the faculty who create and teach e-courses beyond the acknowledgment of their overarching intrinsic motivation to help others achieve an education. Two studies conducted prior to 2002 and two conducted after 2002 were assessed in order to look at which factors were identified by faculty members as influencing their participation or nonparticipation in electronic learning (e-learning) and distance education (DE) courses (Beggs, 2000;Betts, 1998;Gannon-Cook, 2003;Schifter, 2000). These studies used the same (in three instances) or similar (in one study) self-report instrument to measure the intrinsic and extrinsic faculty motivators and demotivators in four university settings. The One of the most well-known behavioural psychologists for his work in motivational theory was Abraham Maslow (1954). His hierarchy of needs theory was based on the basic motivations that govern human behaviour. Needs are prioritised, ranging from the most basic needs of food, water and sleep; to self-actualization needs that include the desire for self-fulfilment and the realisation of one's potential (French, 2001). Once the person's basic physiological needs are met, food shelter, safety and money, then one moves on to desire the next level of needs, those of acceptance, love, higher self-esteem and self-actualisation. The final levels of needs intrinsically motivate a person to perform 150
A word that has achieved broad usage in teacher education over the past decade is &dquo;clinical.&dquo; Clinical experience, clinical schools, clinical sites, clinical supervision, clinical professor, and-occasionally-clinical practice-have achieved idiomatic status in teacher education. Yet the more one delves into the various uses of &dquo;clinical&dquo; in this context, the more confusion reigns. The Dictionary of Education (1) lists no less than 46 uses of the terms &dquo;clinic&dquo; and &dquo;clinical.&dquo; &dquo;Clinical experience,&dquo; for example, has at times been broadly interpreted as virtually any type of experience that occurs outside the classrooms of the institution of higher education ; while in other contexts it has been defined narrowly as a decisioning procedure.We became concerned about the general lack of agreement in teacher education concerning what clinical experience is, and what it is supposed to accomplishespecially given statements such as the following from prominent teacher educators:&dquo;The most universally accepted tenet in teacher education today is that clinical experiences are not only desirable in the preparation of teachers but essential&dquo;(2). If clinical experience is essential in the preservice preparation of teachers, then clinical experience should have value in inservice teacher education as well.The clinical concept is central to our notion of a school-based teacher educator (an individual who has responsibilities for staff development and whose primary base of operation is the elementary or secondary school). Bridging the traditional dichotomy between preservice and inservice teacher education, the school-based teacher educator is a classification of specialists in instructional improvement: teachers of teachers, or in a more Rogerian sense, facilitators of teacher learning, who fulfill their roles in elementary and secondary schools.Allen R. Warner, director of field experiences, is associate project director. W. Robert Houston, associate dean for external affairs, is project director, and James M. Cooper, professor of curriculum and instruction, is associate project director, University of Houston, Texas.How is &dquo;clinical&dquo; used in other professions? What does it denote? What are the implications for teacher education?To help us clarify our thinking on these questions, we commissioned papers from four other professions: clinical psychology, business, allied health professions, and nursing. A literature search was conducted on clinical training for physicians, pharmacists, dentists, politicians, and clergymen. * From this variety of sources several generalizations concerning clinical experience and clinical practice seem to apply across the professions studied. Generalizations Across ProfessionsIn the professions studied, the term &dquo;clinical&dquo; is commonly synonymous with &dquo;field.&dquo; Clinical experience, when the term is used, refers to opportunities for the trainee to learn in actual client settings-whether that setting is a hospital, d...
Are the contributions of universities to the teacher education process unique? What is the role of the university in en hancing the quality of teacher prepara tion? Clift and Warner assert that univer sities make four unique contributions to the education of teachers — contribu tions that cannot be made by other edu cational institutions such as school districts. University teacher education practices: (a) provide the time and re sources for reflecting on educational issues; (b) provide multiple perspectives on the teaching and learning process; (c) provide for intellectual diversity re garding the nature and purpose of schooling; and (d) provide for continued research into the nature of teaching, learning, and schooling.
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