(1) Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) provides a useful tool for monitoring brain activation changes while walking in adults with neurological disorders. When combined with dual task walking paradigms, fNIRS allows for changes in brain activation to be monitored when individuals concurrently attend to multiple tasks. However, differences in dual task paradigms, baseline, and coverage of cortical areas, presents uncertainty in the interpretation of the overarching findings. (2) Methods: By conducting a systematic review of 35 studies and meta-analysis of 75 effect sizes from 17 studies on adults with or without neurological disorders, we show that the performance of obstacle walking, serial subtraction and letter generation tasks while walking result in significant increases in brain activation in the prefrontal cortex relative to standing or walking baselines. (3) Results: Overall, we find that letter generation tasks have the largest brain activation effect sizes relative to walking, and that significant differences between dual task and single task gait are seen in persons with multiple sclerosis and stroke. (4) Conclusions: Older adults with neurological disease generally showed increased brain activation suggesting use of more attentional resources during dual task walking, which could lead to increased fall risk and mobility impairments. PROSPERO ID: 235228.

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Background The Mini-BESTest is a recently developed balance assessment tool that incorporates challenging dynamic balance tasks. Few studies have compared the psychometric properties of the Mini-BESTest to the commonly used Berg Balance Scale (BBS). However, the utility of these scales in relationship to post stroke walking speeds has not been explored. Objectives The purpose of this study was to compare the sensitivity and specificity of the Mini-BESTest and BBS to evaluate walking speeds in individuals with stroke. Design A retrospective exploratory design. Methods Forty-one individuals with chronic stroke were evaluated with the Mini-BESTest, BBS, and 10-meter self-selected walk test (10MWT). Based on their self-selected gait speeds (below or above 0.8 m/s), participants were classified as slow and fast walkers. Results Significant linear correlations were observed between the Mini-BESTest vs. BBS (r = 0.72, p ≤ 0.001), Mini-BESTest vs. 10MWT (r = 0.58, p ≤ 0.001), and BBS vs. 10MWT (r = 0.30, p = 0.05). Independent t-tests comparing the balance scores for the slow and fast walkers revealed significant group differences for the Mini-BESTest (p =0.003), but not for the BBS (p = 0.09). The Mini-BESTest demonstrated higher sensitivity (93%) and specificity (64%) compared to the BBS (sensitivity 81%, specificity 56%) for discriminating participants into slow and fast walkers. No significant results were observed with the FMLE-M scores. Conclusions The Mini-BESTest has a greater discriminative ability than the BBS to categorize individuals with stroke into slow and fast walkers.

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Sex chromosome abnormalities, such as 47,XXX, 47,XXY, 47,XYY, and 45,X, are relatively common and occur in approximately 1 of 400 births. Sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy are much rarer events. The somatic and developmental consequences of supernumerary sex chromosomes have not been studied adequately. This is especially true of individuals with only supernumerary Y chromosomes. Based on available case reports, the effects of extra Y chromosomes appear not as severe as those of supernumerary X chromosomes. Only two case reports of nonmosaic tetrasomy of the Y chromosome have been published. We evaluated a 30-year-old man with a 49,XYYYY karyotype and assessed his severe physical and mental handicaps (particularly the endocrine abnormalities) and attempted to clarify the effects of extra Y chromosomes on growth, development, and behavior.

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Sex chromosome abnormalities, such as 47,XXX, 47,XXY, 47,XYY, and 45,X, are relatively common and occur in approximately 1 of 400 births. Sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy are much rarer events. The somatic and developmental consequences of supernumerary sex chromosomes have not been studied adequately. This is especially true of individuals with only supernumerary Y chromosomes. Based on available case reports, the effects of extra Y chromosomes appear not as severe as those of supernumerary X chromosomes. Only two case reports of nonmosaic tetrasomy of the Y chromosome have been published. We evaluated a 30-year-old man with a 49,XYYYY karyotype and assessed his severe physical and mental handicaps (particularly the endocrine abnormalities) and attempted to clarify the effects of extra Y chromosomes on growth, development, and behavior.