Objectives:In the present study, central effects of physostigmine and atropine have investigated in the formalin-induced pain in rats.Materials and Methods:In conscious rats implanted with an intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) cannula, the effects of i.c.v. injection of physostigmine and atropine were investigated on the formalin test in the rat. Formalin test was induced by subcutaneous (s.c.) injection of formalin (50 μl, 1%) in ventral surface of left hind paw, and durations of licking and biting of the injected paw were measured in 5-min blocks for 1 h.Results:Formalin produced a biphasic response (first phase: 0–5 and second phase: 15–40 min) in durations of licking and biting of the injected paw. Physostigmine at doses of 2.5, 5 and 10 ug significantly (P < 0.05) attenuated both first and second phases of pain response. Atropine (5 and 10 ug), used alone, produced no significant effect on pain, but pretreatment with atropine (10 ug) significantly (P < 0.05) blocked antinociception induced by physostigmine (5 ug).Conclusion:These results indicate that i.c.v. physostigmine can affect both neurogenic and inflammatory phases of formalin-induced pain through a mechanism in which the muscarinic cholinergic receptors are involved.

In this study, the effects of mepyramine (H1-receptor antagonist), famotidine (H2-receptor antagonist), physostigmine (a cholinesterase inhibitor) and atropine (muscarinic-receptor antagonist) have investigated on the formalin-induced nociception in rats. The effects of mepyramine and famotidine have also examined on nociceptive changes induced by physostigmine and atropine. Nociception was induced by intraplantar injection of formalin (50 microL, 1%) into the right hind paw and the time spent licking and biting of the injected paw, was taken as a measure of pain. Formalin induced a marked biphasic (first phase: 0-5 min and second phase: 15-45 min) pain response. The used drugs did not change the first phase of formalin-induced pain. Subcutaneous injection of physostigmine significantly (p<0.05) suppressed pain. Subcutaneous injection of atropine alone did not change the intensity of pain, but pretreatment with atropine significantly (p<0.05) prevented physostigmine-induced antinociception. Intraperitoneal injections of mepyramine and famotidine significantly (p<0.05) decreased pain response. Mepyramine did not significantly change, but famotidine significantly (p<0.05) prevented analgesic effect of physostigmine on pain. Atropine did not inhibit the antinociceptive effects of both mepyramine and famotidine on formalin-induced nociception. These results indicate that physostigmine through muscarinic cholinergic receptors suppresses the pain induced by formalin. Both H1 and H2 receptor antagonists produce antinociception. Histamine H2, but no H1 antagonists may be involved in physostigmine-induced antinociception.

The real-time and live video streaming are playing an important role in our daily lives; therefore enhancing the quality of realtime and live video streaming over wired and wireless packet erasure networks which becomes more and more important topic nowadays. The main objective of this tutorial paper is to highlight state of the art on video streaming and the most important methods for enhancing video streaming over wired and wireless packet erasure networks to the computer/communication engineering students and new researchers. Firstly, it presents an overview of layered coding compression techniques (like: H.264/SVC) which lead to better real-time video streaming quality than single layer coding techniques (like: H.264/AVC). Secondly, it highlights how to solve the channel errors and lost packets problems in video streaming via implementing some of Forward Error Correction (FEC) techniques. Furthermore, it presents Backward Error Correction (BEC) techniques for enhancing the video streaming. After that it talks about the implementation of rateless FEC techniques with feedback for solving the real-time and live video streaming issues. Then it presents some recent researches on the Unequal Error (or Loss) Protection (UEP) techniques which are more powerful and achieve better Peak Signal to Noise Rate (PSNR) than the previous Equal Error Protection (EEP) techniques. Also it highlights the adaptive UEP scheme which brings significant improvements in terms of average PSNR over static UEP scheme for same used bandwidth. Furthermore, it talks about the multipath video streaming which leads to better loss characteristics and better load distribution on wireless networks than the single path video streaming. Finally, it presents some recent researches that based on hybrid solution of rateless FEC and advanced BEC techniques for enhancing the real-time and live video streaming quality over 3G, Wi-Fi and WiMAX wireless networks.