Highlights Patients with COVID-19 show a prominent Th1 and Th17 cytokine profile. COVID-19 induces the expression of TGF-β. TGF-β can be used as a predictive factor of disease severity in patients with COVID-19.

Background: Cell-mediated immunity including T-cells (T helper and cytotoxic) plays an essential role in efficient antiviral responses against coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19). Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the ratio and expression of CD4 and CD8 markers in COVID-19 patients to clarify the immune characterizations of CD4 and CD8 T-cells in COVID-19 patients. Methods: Peripheral blood samples of 25 COVID-19 patients and 25 normal individuals with similar age and sex as the control group were collected. White blood cells, platelets, and lymphocytes were counted and CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes were evaluated by flow cytometry. Results: The number of white blood cells, lymphocytes, and platelets were reduced significantly in COVID-19 patients (P < 0.05). The difference in CD4:CD8 ratio, CD4 T-cell frequency, CD8 T-cell frequency, and CD4 mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) was not significant between COVID-19 patients and healthy individuals (P > 0.05); however, the CD8 MFI increased significantly in COVID-19 infected patients (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Although, there is no significant difference in the ratio of CD4 to CD8 between two groups, the expression level of CD8 in COVID-19 patients was significantly higher than the normal individuals. This result suggested that the cellular immune responses triggered by COVID-19 infection were developed through overexpression of CD8 and hyperactivation of cytotoxic T lymphocytes.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease in which the myelin sheaths around the axons of the central nervous system are damaged. The damage leads to demyelination and scarring as well as a broad spectrum of signs and symptoms. The epidemiological data suggest a possible influence of vitamin D as an immunomodulatory agent on multiple sclerosis susceptibility as well as on clinical course of the disease. We investigated the effects of short-term vitamin D3 therapy on Iranian patients with MS. In a prospective randomized controlled trial study, 62 MS patients received 300,000 IU/month vitamin D3 or placebo as intramuscular injection for 6 months. Our results showed no significant difference between the treatment and the control groups in the expanded disability status scale scores and number of gadolinium-enhancing lesions during the 6-month treatment period. After 6 months, the levels of cell proliferation in the vitamin D treatment group were significantly lower than the control group. Also, the levels of transforming growth factor-beta and interleukin-10 in the vitamin D treatment group were significantly higher than the control group. This result suggests that vitamin D therapy may help prevent the development of MS and could be a useful addition to the therapy.

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Saffron is the dried stigmata of the flowers of saffron (Crocus sativus L.). Saffron is rich in carotenoids and carotenoids affect immunity. Thus, in this randomized double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial with healthy men aged 21.4 ± 0.8 years (mean ± SE), the effects of taking one 100 mg saffron tablet daily for 6 weeks on the blood serum levels of IgG, IgM, IgA, C(3) and C(4) complements, counts and percentages of white blood cells, platelets, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes, levels of some hematological parameters and levels of creatinine, SGOT and SGPT were evaluated in 45 subjects and compared with the placebo group (n = 44). After 3 weeks, saffron increased the IgG level and decreased the IgM level compared with the baseline and placebo (p < 0.01), decreased the percentage of basophils and the count of platelets compared with baseline, but increased the percentage of monocytes compared with placebo (p < 0.05). However, these parameters returned to the baseline levels after 6 weeks. Saffron did not have any significant effects on the other parameters. No adverse effects were reported. The results suggest that the sub-chronic daily use of 100 mg saffron has temporary immunomodulatory activities without any adverse effects.