Rationale: Transmural dispersion of repolarization has been shown to play a role in the genesis of ventricular tachycardia and fibrillation in different animal models of heart failure (HF). Heterogeneous changes of repolarization within the midmyocardial population of ventricular cells have been considered an important contributor to the HF phenotype. However, there is limited electrophysiological data from the human heart. Objective: To study electrophysiological remodeling of transmural repolarization in the failing and nonfailing human hearts. Methods and Results: We optically mapped the action potential duration (APD) in the coronary-perfused scar-free posterior-lateral left ventricular free wall wedge preparations from failing (n‫)5؍‬ and nonfailing (n‫)5؍‬ human hearts. During slow pacing (S1S1‫0002؍‬ ms), in the nonfailing hearts we observed significant transmural APD gradient: subepicardial, midmyocardial, and subendocardial APD80 were 383؎21, 455؎20, and 494؎22 ms, respectively. In 60% of nonfailing hearts (3 of 5), we found midmyocardial islands of cells that presented a distinctly long APD (537؎40 ms) and a steep local APD gradient (27؎7 ms/mm) compared with the neighboring myocardium. HF resulted in prolongation of APD80: 477؎22 ms, 495؎29 ms, and 506؎35 ms for the subepi-, mid-, and subendocardium, respectively, while reducing transmural APD80 difference from 111؎13 to 29؎6 ms (P<0.005) and presence of any prominent local APD gradient. In HF, immunostaining revealed a significant reduction of connexin43 expression on the subepicardium. Conclusions: We present for the first time direct experimental evidence of a transmural APD gradient in the human heart. HF results in the heterogeneous prolongation of APD, which significantly reduces the transmural and local APD gradients. (Circ Res. 2010;106:981-991.)Key Words: heart failure Ⅲ repolarization Ⅲ transmural gradient Ⅲ optical mapping Ⅲ connexin43 H eart failure (HF) claims more than 200 000 lives annually in the US alone. 1,2 Approximately a half of these deaths are sudden and presumably caused by ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Pathophysiological remodeling of cardiac function occurs at multiple levels and includes the alterations in a host of ion channels, Ca 2ϩ -handling proteins, and proteins mediating cell-cell coupling, predisposing to arrhythmias and sudden death. 3 Numerous animal models have shown the importance of such electrophysiological (EP) remodeling in the mechanisms of HF-related arrhythmogenesis. 4 Prolongation of the repolarization is a hallmark of cells and tissues isolated from failing hearts independent of the cause, which has been observed in isolated myocytes 5 and intact ventricular preparations. 4,6 This fundamental change in myocyte biology underlies QT-interval prolongation of the surface ECG in patients with HF. The action potential (AP) prolongation is heterogeneous, resulting in exaggeration of the physiological heterogeneity of electric properties in the failing heart. 1,4 These cellular EP changes were linked to down...

Sinus node dysfunction (SND) is a major public health problem that is associated with sudden cardiac death and requires surgical implantation of artificial pacemakers. However, little is known about the molecular and cellular mechanisms that cause SND. Most SND occurs in the setting of heart failure and hypertension, conditions that are marked by elevated circulating angiotensin II (Ang II) and increased oxidant stress. Here, we show that oxidized calmodulin kinase II (ox-CaMKII) is a biomarker for SND in patients and dogs and a disease determinant in mice. In wild-type mice, Ang II infusion caused sinoatrial nodal (SAN) cell oxidation by activating NADPH oxidase, leading to increased ox-CaMKII, SAN cell apoptosis, and SND. p47 --mice lacking functional NADPH oxidase and mice with myocardial or SAN-targeted CaMKII inhibition were highly resistant to SAN apoptosis and SND, suggesting that ox-CaMKII-triggered SAN cell death contributed to SND. We developed a computational model of the sinoatrial node that showed that a loss of SAN cells below a critical threshold caused SND by preventing normal impulse formation and propagation. These data provide novel molecular and mechanistic information to understand SND and suggest that targeted CaMKII inhibition may be useful for preventing SND in high-risk patients. IntroductionEach normal heart beat is initiated as an electrical impulse from a small number of highly specialized sinoatrial node (SAN) pacemaker cells that reside in the lateral right atrium. There is now general agreement that physiological SAN function requires a pacemaker current (I f ) (1) and spontaneous release of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) intracellular Ca 2+ that triggers depolarizing current through the Na + /Ca 2+ exchanger (I NCX ) (2, 3). The multifunctional Ca 2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is essential for increasing SR Ca 2+ release in SAN cells in response to stress to cause physiological "fight-or-flight" heart rate (HR) increases (4). Although the physiological basis for SAN behavior is increasingly understood, very little is known about SAN disease. Severe SAN dysfunction (SND) is marked by irregular prolonged pauses between heart beats, pathologically slow HRs at rest, and inadequate activity-related increases in HR. At present, surgical implantation of permanent pacemakers is required for treatment of SND and costs $2 billion annually in the United States (5). SND commonly occurs in the setting of heart failure and hypertension (6-8), conditions characterized by excessive activation of renin-Ang II signaling (9) and elevated levels of ROS (10). Ang II increases ROS in ventricular myocardium by stimulating NADPH oxidase to cause activation of CaMKII (ox-CaMKII) by oxidation of Met281/282 in the CaMKII regulatory domain (11).

Background The site of origin and pattern of excitation within the human sinoatrial node (SAN) has not been directly mapped. Objective We hypothesized that the human SAN is functionally insulated from the surrounding atrial myocardium except for several exit pathways which electrically bridge the nodal tissue and atrial myocardium. Methods The SAN was optically mapped in coronary perfused preparations from non-failing human hearts (n=4, age 54±15 years) using dye Di-4-ANBDQBS and Blebbistatin. SAN 3D structure was reconstructed using histology. Results Optical recordings from the SAN had diastolic depolarization and multiple upstroke components, which corresponded to the separate excitations of the SAN and atrial layers. Excitation originated in the middle of the SAN (66±17 BPM), then slowly (1–18 cm/s) and anisotropically spread. After a 82±17 ms conduction delay within the SAN, the atrial myocardium was excited via superior, middle, and/or inferior sinoatrial conduction pathways. Atrial excitation was initiated 9.4±4.2 mm from the leading pacemaker site. The oval 14.3±1.5 × 6.7±1.6 × 1.0±0.2 mm SAN structure was functionally insulated from the atrium by connective tissue, fat, and coronary arteries, except for these pathways. Conclusion These data demonstrated for the first time the location of the leading SAN pacemaker site, the pattern of excitation within the human SAN, and the conduction pathways into the right atrium. The existence of these pathways explained why, even during normal sinus rhythm, atrial breakthroughs could arise from a region parallel to the CT that is significantly larger (26.0±7.8 mm) than the area of the anatomically defined SAN.

Background Excitation-contraction (EC) coupling is altered in the end-stage heart failure (HF). However, spatial heterogeneity of this remodeling has not been established at the tissue level in failing human heart. The objective is to study functional remodeling of EC coupling and calcium handling in failing and nonfailing human hearts. Methods and Results We simultaneously optically mapped action potentials (AP) and calcium transients (CaT) in coronary-perfused left ventricular wedge preparations from nonfailing (n = 6) and failing (n = 5) human hearts. Our major findings are: (1) CaT duration minus AP duration was longer at sub-endocardium in failing compared to nonfailing hearts during bradycardia (40 beats/min). (2) The transmural gradient of CaT duration was significantly smaller in failing hearts compared with nonfailing hearts at fast pacing rates (100 beats/min). (3) CaT in failing hearts had a flattened plateau at the midmyocardium; and exhibited a “two-component” slow rise at sub-endocardium in three failing hearts. (4) CaT relaxation was slower at sub-endocardium than that at sub-epicardium in both groups. Protein expression of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase 2a (SERCA2a) was lower at sub-endocardium than that at sub-epicardium in both nonfailing and failing hearts. SERCA2a protein expression at sub-endocardium was lower in hearts with ischemic cardiomyopathy compared with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Conclusions For the first time, we present direct experimental evidence of transmural heterogeneity of EC coupling and calcium handling in human hearts. End-stage HF is associated with the heterogeneous remodeling of EC coupling and calcium handling.

These data indicate that although both autonomic systems play a role in AF, cholinergic stimulation is likely the main factor for spontaneous AF initiation in this animal model. Adrenergic tone modulates the initiation and maintenance of cholinergically mediated AF.

Background Several arrhythmogenic mechanisms have been inferred from animal heart failure (HF) models. However, the translation of these hypotheses is difficult due to lack of functional human data. We aimed to investigate the electrophysiological substrate for arrhythmia in human end-stage non-ischemic cardiomyopathy. Methods and Results We optically mapped the coronary-perfused left ventricular wedge preparations from human hearts with end-stage non-ischemic cardiomyopathy (HF, n=10) and non-failing hearts (NF, n=10). Molecular remodeling was studied with immunostaining, Western blotting, and histological analyses. HF produced heterogeneous prolongation of action potential duration (APD) resulting in the decrease of transmural APD dispersion (64±12 ms vs 129±15 ms in NF, P<0.005). In the failing hearts, transmural activation was significantly slowed from the endocardium (39±3 cm/s versus 49±2 cm/s in NF, P=0.008) to the epicardium (28±3 cm/s versus 40±2 cm/s in NF, P=0.008). Conduction slowing was likely due to Cx43 downregulation, decreased colocalization of Cx43 with N-cadherin (40±2% versus 52±5% in NF, P=0.02), and an altered distribution of phosphorylated Cx43 isoforms by the upregulation of the dephosphorylated Cx43 in both the subendocardium and subepicardium layers. Failing hearts further demonstrated spatially discordant conduction velocity alternans which resulted in nonuniform propagation discontinuities and wavebreaks conditioned by strands of increased interstitial fibrosis (fibrous tissue content in HF 16.4±7.7 versus 9.9±1.4% in NF, P=0.02). Conclusions Conduction disorder resulting from the anisotropic downregulation of Cx43 expression, the reduction of Cx43 phosphorylation, and increased fibrosis is likely to be a critical component of arrhythmogenic substrate in patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy.

Rationale Disruption in subcellular targeting of Ca2+ signaling complexes secondary to changes in cardiac myocyte structure may contribute to the pathophysiology of a variety of cardiac diseases, including heart failure (HF) and certain arrhythmias. Objective To explore microdomain-targeted remodeling of ventricular L-type Ca2+ channels (LTCCs) in HF. Methods and Results Super-resolution scanning patch-clamp, confocal and fluorescence microscopy were used to explore distribution of single LTCCs in different membrane microdomains of non-failing and failing human and rat ventricular myocytes. Disruption of membrane structure in both species led to re-distribution of functional LTCCs from their canonical location in transversal tubules (T-tubules) to the non-native crest of the sarcolemma, where their open probability (Po) was dramatically increased (0.034±0.011 vs 0.154±0.027, P<0.001). High Po was linked to enhanced calcium-calmodulin kinase II (CaMKII)-mediated phosphorylation in non-native microdomains and resulted in an elevated ICa,L window current which contributed to the development of early afterdepolarizations (EADs). A novel model of LTCC function in HF was developed; following its validation with experimental data, the model was used to ascertain how HF–induced T-tubule loss led to altered LTCC function and EADs. The HF myocyte model was then implemented in a 3D left ventricle model, demonstrating that such EADs can propagate and initiate reentrant arrhythmias. Conclusion Microdomain-targeted remodeling of LTCC properties is an important event in pathways that may contribute to ventricular arrhythmogenesis in the settings of HF-associated remodeling. This extends beyond the classical concept of electrical remodelling in HF and adds a new dimension to cardiovascular disease.

Loss of CASQ2 causes abnormal sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release and selective interstitial fibrosis in the atrial pacemaker complex, which disrupt SAN pacemaking but enhance latent pacemaker activity, create conduction abnormalities and increase susceptibility to AF. These functional and extensive structural alterations could contribute to SAN dysfunction as well as AF in CPVT patients.