This article investigates neural and physiological correlates of simulator sickness (SS) through a controlled experiment conducted within a fully immersive dome projection system. Our goal is to establish a reliable, objective, and in situ measurable predictive indicator of SS. SS is a problem common to all types of visual simulators consisting of motion sickness-like symptoms that may be experienced while and after being exposed to a dynamic, immersive visualization. It leads to ethical concerns and impaired validity of simulator-based research. Due to the popularity of virtual reality devices, the number of people exposed to this problem is increasing and, therefore, it is crucial to find reliable predictors of this condition before any symptoms appear. Despite its relevance and the several theories about its origins, SS cannot yet be quantitatively modeled and predicted. Our results indicate that, while neural correlates did not materialize, physiological measures may be a solid early indicator of oncoming SS.
Reward uncertainty can prompt exploration and learning, strengthening approach and consummatory behaviours. For humans, these phenomena are exploited in marketing promotions and gambling products, sometimes spurring hedonic consumption. Here, in four experiments, we sought to identify whether reward uncertaintyas a state of 'not-knowing' that exists between an action and a positively-valanced outcomeenhances the in-themoment consumption and experience of other palatable food and drink rewards. In Experiment 1, we demonstrate that reward uncertainty can increase consumption of commercial alcoholic drinks and energy-dense savoury snacks. In Experiment 2, we show that reward uncertainty is unlikely to promote consumption through gross increases in impulsivity (expressed as higher discounting rates) or risk-tolerance (expressed as lower probability discounting rates). In Experiment 3, we find that reward uncertainty intensifies taste of, and hedonic responses to, sucrose solutions in a concentration-dependent manner among individuals with preferences for sweet tastes. Finally, in Experiment 4, we replicate and extend these findings by showing that reward uncertainty intensifies the taste of palatable foods and drinks in ways that are independent of individuals' discounting rates, motor control, reflection impulsivity and momentary happiness; but are strongly moderated by recent depressive symptoms. These data suggest a working hypothesis that (incidental) reward uncertainty, as a state of 'not knowing', operates as a mood-dependent 'taste intensifier' of palatable food and drink rewards, possibly sustaining reward-seeking and consumption.
Humans are remarkably effective social learners, with several recent studies formalizing this capacity using computational models. However, previous research has often been limited to tasks where observer and demonstrator share the same reward function. In contrast, humans can learn from others who have different preferences, skills, or goals. To study social learning under individual differences, we introduce the socially correlated bandit, where participants have personalized rewards, which are correlated with but not identical to those of others. Social information can still be useful, but not when used verbatim. We present a model of Social Generalization that integrates individual and social information into the generalization process, but assumes social information to be noisier and thus less informative. This model out-competes previous models, with it being the dominant strategy in evolutionary simulations. Our findings expand on previous models of social learning, showing humans can integrate social information more flexibly than previously assumed.
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