This study examines burnout and engagement-the hypothesized opposite of burnout-in university students from Spain (n = 623), Portugal (n = 727), and the Netherlands (n = 311). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the expected three-factor structures of the adapted versions of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) for students (including Exhaustion, Cynicism, and Reduced Efficacy) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) for students (including Vigor, Dedication, and Absorption) fitted to the data of each sample. However, a rigorous test revealed that most factor loadings of the MBI were not invariant across all samples. Results with the UWES were slightly better, indicating invariance of factor loadings of Absorption in all samples and of Vigor in two of the three samples. Furthermore, as hypothesized, the burnout and engagement subscales were negatively correlated. Finally, irrespective of country, Efficacy and Vigor were positively related to academic performance, that is, the number of passed exams relative to the total number of exams in the previous term.

OBJECTIVE: To perform a cross-cultural adaptation of the Portuguese version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory for students (MBI-SS), and investigate its reliability, validity and cross-cultural invariance. METHODS: The face validity involved the participation of a multidisciplinary team. Content validity was performed. The Portuguese version was completed in 2009, on the internet, by 958 Brazilian and 556 Portuguese university students from the urban area. Confi rmatory factor analysis was carried out using as fi t indices: the  2 /df, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) and the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA). To verify the stability of the factor solution according to the original English version, cross-validation was performed in 2/3 of the total sample and replicated in the remaining 1/3. Convergent validity was estimated by the average variance extracted and composite reliability. The discriminant validity was assessed, and the internal consistency was estimated by the Cronbach's alpha coeffi cient. Concurrent validity was estimated by the correlational analysis of the mean scores of the Portuguese version and the Copenhagen Burnout Inventory, and the divergent validity was compared to the Beck Depression Inventory. The invariance of the model between the Brazilian and the Portuguese samples was assessed. RESULTS: The three-factor model of Exhaustion, Disengagement and Effi cacy showed good fi t ( 2 /df = 8.498, CFI = 0.916, GFI = 0.902, RMSEA = 0.086). The factor structure was stable (:  2 dif = 11.383, p = 0.50; Cov:  2 dif = 6.479, p = 0.372; Residues:  2 dif = 21.514, p = 0.121). Adequate convergent validity (VEM = 0.45;0.64, CC = 0.82;0.88), discriminant ( 2 = 0.06;0.33) and internal consistency (= 0.83;0.88) were observed. The concurrent validity of the Portuguese version with the Copenhagen Inventory was adequate (r = 0.21, 0.74). The assessment of the divergent validity was impaired by the approach of the theoretical concept of the dimensions Exhaustion and Disengagement of the Portuguese version with the Beck Depression Inventory. Invariance of the instrument between the Brazilian and Portuguese samples was not observed (: 2 dif = 84.768, p<0.001; Cov:  2 dif = 129.206, p < 0.001; Residues:  2 dif = 518.760, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The Portuguese version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory for students showed adequate reliability and validity, but its factor structure was not invariant between the countries, indicating the absence of cross-cultural stability.

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Predicting academic performance is of key importance to the success, wellbeing and prosperity of students, their families, the economy, and the society at large. This study investigates the relationship between academic engagement, psychological capital (PsyCap) and academic performance. Data were collected in two different universities, one in Spain and another in Portugal. Students completed two self-report questionnaires regarding academic engagement and Psychological Capital. Academic performance was assessed through Grade Point Average, provided by the universities at the end of the exam period. The samples consisted of 389 and 243 undergraduate students, respectively. Results showed a positive relationship between academic engagement and PsyCap, on the one hand, and academic performance on the other, in both samples. Results also supported PsyCap as a full mediator in the relationship between academic engagement and academic performance. Exploration of alternative models yielded superior fit for the proposed model. Accordingly, academically engaged students were likely to experience higher levels of PsyCap, which in turn positively impacted their academic performance. The results point to the importance of considering psychological predictors, rather than the prevalent reliance on traditional predictors of academic performance.

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