Allelic replacement in staphylococci is frequently aided by antibiotic resistance markers that replace the gene(s) of interest. In multiply modified strains, the number of mutated genes usually correlates with the number of selection markers in the strain's chromosome. Site-specific recombination systems are capable of eliminating such markers, if they are flanked by recombinase recognition sites. In this study, a Cre-lox setting was established that allowed the efficient removal of resistance genes from the genomes of Staphylococcus carnosus and S. aureus. Two cassettes conferring resistance to erythromycin or kanamycin were flanked with wild-type or mutant lox sites, respectively, and used to delete single genes and an entire operon. After transformation of the cells with a newly constructed cre expression plasmid (pRAB1), genomic eviction of the resistance genes was observed in approximately one out of ten candidates analyzed and subsequently verified by PCR. Due to its thermosensitive origin of replication, the plasmid was then easily eliminated at nonpermissive temperatures. We anticipate that the system presented here will prove useful for generating markerless deletion mutants in staphylococci.Staphylococci belong to the low-GϩC gram-positive bacteria, with a spherical morphology and characteristically form grape-like clusters. To date, at least 38 species of this genus have been identified (16, 46), which, although closely linked phylogenetically, differ markedly in their physiology. Staphylococcus carnosus is an apathogenic and, from a human viewpoint, rather beneficial bacterium, which has been used in the food industry since the 1950s. Among other processes, S. carnosus reduces nitrate to nitrite and eventually to ammonia in fermented meat, whereby both the nitrate concentration and the pH are lowered for preservation purposes (summarized in reference 16). The characteristic flavor of salami sausages is also conferred by S. carnosus. In addition, this species has proven suitable for expressing heterologous proteins (15), which can be secreted or displayed on the bacterial surface (37, 43) without risking endotoxin contamination. In contrast, the most prominent representative of staphylococci is S. aureus, reputedly the causative agent of various infections, such as mastitis, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, enterocolitis, and further illnesses that can be life-threatening in immunocompromised patients. A vast amount of nosocomial infections are attributed to S. aureus, some of which are increasingly hard to combat due to the strains' acquisition of multiple-antibiotic resistance (28). In particular, S. aureus strains resistant to methicillin or vancomycin can hardly be combated by the few remaining active antibiotics left (34). Although numerous pathogenicity factors have been identified and infection-related traits of S. aureus are increasingly better understood (summarized in reference 14), deeper insight into this organism's physiology is still necessary to identify potential sites of attack for novel ...
The GLABRA3 gene is a major regulator of trichome patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana. The regulatory regions important for the trichome-specific expression of GL3 have not been characterized yet. In this study, we used a combination of marker and rescue constructs to determine the relevant promoter regions. We demonstrate that a 1 kb 5′ region combined with the second intron is sufficient to rescue the trichome mutant phenotype of gl3 egl3 mutants. Swap experiments of the second intron suggest that it is not sufficient to generally enhance the expression level of GL3. This implies that the second intron contains regulatory regions for the temporal and spatial regulation of GL3. The corresponding GUS-marker constructs revealed trichome-specific expression in young trichomes.
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