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Keywords:Aerial broadcast Brodifacoum rodenticide Invasive rodent eradication Toxicant residue Trophic level bioaccumulation Tropical island forest a b s t r a c tThe use of rodenticides to control or eradicate invasive rats (Rattus spp.) for conservation purposes has rapidly grown in the past decades, especially on islands. The non-target consequences and the fate of toxicant residue from such rodent eradication operations have not been well explored. In a cooperative effort, we monitored the application of a rodenticide, 'Brodifacoum 25W: Conservation', during an attempt to eradicate Rattus rattus from Palmyra Atoll. In 2011, Brodifacoum 25W: Conservation was aerially broadcasted twice over the entire atoll (2.5 km 2 ) at rates of 80 kg/ha and 75 kg/ha and a supplemental hand broadcast application (71.6 kg/ha) occurred three weeks after the second aerial application over a 10 ha area. We documented brodifacoum residues in soil, water, and biota, and documented mortality of non-target organisms. Some bait (14-19% of the target application rate) entered the marine environment to distances 7 m from the shore. After the application commenced, carcasses of 84 animals representing 15 species of birds, fish, reptiles and invertebrates were collected opportunistically as potential non-target mortalities. In addition, fish, reptiles, and invertebrates were systematically collected for residue analysis. Brodifacoum residues were detected in most (84.3%) of the animal samples analyzed. Although detection of residues in samples was anticipated, the extent and concentrations in many parts of the food web were greater than expected. Risk assessments should carefully consider application rates and entire food webs prior to operations using rodenticides.Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Rat eradication has become a common conservation intervention in island ecosystems and its effectiveness in protecting native vertebrates is increasingly well documented. Yet, the impacts of rat eradication on plant communities remain poorly understood. Here we compare native and non-native tree and palm seedling abundance before and after eradication of invasive rats (Rattus rattus) from Palmyra Atoll, Line Islands, Central Pacific Ocean. Overall, seedling recruitment increased for five of the six native trees species examined. While pre-eradication monitoring found no seedlings of Pisonia grandis, a dominant tree species that is important throughout the Pacific region, post-eradication monitoring documented a notable recruitment event immediately following eradication, with up to 688 individual P. grandis seedlings per 100m2 recorded one month post-eradication. Two other locally rare native trees with no observed recruitment in pre-eradication surveys had recruitment post-rat eradication. However, we also found, by five years post-eradication, a 13-fold increase in recruitment of the naturalized and range-expanding coconut palm Cocos nucifera. Our results emphasize the strong effects that a rat eradication can have on tree recruitment with expected long-term effects on canopy composition. Rat eradication released non-native C. nucifera, likely with long-term implications for community composition, potentially necessitating future management interventions. Eradication, nevertheless, greatly benefitted recruitment of native tree species. If this pattern persists over time, we expect long-term benefits for flora and fauna dependent on these native species.

Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge is a moist Central Pacific atoll that supports one of the best remaining tropical forest ecosystems in the region, including 10 species of breeding seabirds and a robust population of the world's largest terrestrial invertebrate, the coconut crab. Despite these riches, the atoll's ecosystem has been modified by introduced black rats that were inadvertently brought to Palmyra during WWII. Between June 1 and 30, 2011, a partnership between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Nature Conservancy, and Island Conservation successfully implemented a project to remove rats from Palmyra. Independent monitoring of bait application and its environmental effects was undertaken by the USDA. Over the 28-day operation, a team of 41 people from 5 countries utilized 2 helicopters, 10 slingshots, 148 bait stations, and hand spreading to strategically apply 38,561 kg of rodent bait containing the anticoagulant brodifacoum (25 ppm) to Palmyra's 235 hectares of emergent land. Palmyra's challenging eradication environment demanded the development of a novel approach, such as broadcast application rates between 75 and 85 kg/ha and the use of "bolas" to bait coastal forest canopy to minimize bait drift into the marine environment. Initial findings show minimal non-target impacts as a result of the project, and post-eradication monitoring has failed to detect rats. Increased recruitment by at least 2 native tree species has been observed. By removing rats from Palmyra, the partnership aims to safeguard the atoll's indigenous flora and fauna, encourage the reestablishment of extirpated seabird species, and create an ecological refuge for species within the Central Pacific region that are at risk of extinction. �his project is a conservation milestone for the Refuge, and it has established a benchmark �his project is a conservation milestone for the Refuge, and it has established a benchmark for eradication campaigns on other tropical islands.