Transcriptional regulation of developmentally controlled genes is at the heart of differentiation and organogenesis. In this study, we performed global genomic analyses in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells and in human cells in response to activation signals. We identified an essential role for the ELL (eleven-nineteen lysine-rich leukemia gene)/P-TEFb (positive transcription elongation factor)-containing super elongation complex (SEC) in the regulation of gene expression, including several genes bearing paused RNA polymerase II (Pol II). Paused Pol II has been proposed to be associated with loci that respond rapidly to environmental stimuli. However, our studies in ES cells also identified a requirement for SEC at genes without paused Pol II, which also respond dynamically to differentiation signals. Our findings suggest that SEC is a major class of active P-TEFb-containing complexes required for transcriptional activation in response to environmental cues such as differentiation signals.
The elongation stage of transcription is highly regulated in metazoans. We previously purified the AFF1-and AFF4-containing super elongation complex (SEC) as a major regulator of development and cancer pathogenesis. Here, we report the biochemical isolation of SEC-like 2 (SEC-L2) and SEC-like 3 (SEC-L3) containing AFF2 and AFF3 in association with P-TEFb, ENL/MLLT1, and AF9/MLLT3. The SEC family members demonstrate high levels of polymerase II (Pol II) C-terminal domain kinase activity; however, only SEC is required for the proper induction of the HSP70 gene upon stress. Genome-wide mRNA-Seq analyses demonstrated that SEC-L2 and SEC-L3 control the expression of different subsets of genes, while AFF4/SEC plays a more dominant role in rapid transcriptional induction in cells. MYC is one of the direct targets of AFF4/SEC, and SEC recruitment to the MYC gene regulates its expression in different cancer cells, including those in acute myeloid or lymphoid leukemia. These findings suggest that AFF4/SEC could be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of leukemia or other cancers associated with MYC overexpression.T ranscription by RNA polymerase II (Pol II) is a finely tuned and multistep process (40,42,51). After the synthesis of the first few phosphodiester bonds, RNA Pol II escapes from the promoter and enters the productive elongation stage of transcription, depending on the presence of proper environmental signals (40). For decades, the preinitiation complex (PIC) assembly was thought to be the main target of regulation during the entire transcription process. Recently, however, a large number of studies have demonstrated that in addition to the regulation of PIC, promoter-proximal pausing by Pol II and its controlled release is a major regulatory step, especially on developmentally regulated genes (3,7,27,35,38,42,43,57). Multiple elongation factors regulating the elongation stage of transcription have been identified. These include P-TEFb (positive transcription elongation factor), DSIF (DRB sensitivity-inducing factor), NELF (negative transcription elongation factor), and ELL (eleven-nineteen lysinerich leukemia gene) (21,37,40,42,43). DSIF and NELF coordinately participate in setting up paused Pol II at the promoterproximal region (50, 53). The cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) module of the P-TEFb complex phosphorylates serine 2 of the Pol II C-terminal domain (CTD), the SPT5 subunit of DSIF, and the E subunit of NELF, leading to the dissociation of paused Pol II from DSIF and NELF for productive elongation (12,21,29,37).The kinase activity of P-TEFb is tightly regulated in vivo through the formation of different complexes to achieve its regulation of transcription elongation. The inactive form of the P-TEFb complex contains 7SK-RNA, MEPCE, LARP7, and HEXIM1, which sequester PTEFb and inhibit its kinase activity (4, 18). The vast majority of P-TEFb exists in this inactive pool (36, 55). P-TEFb was later found to form a complex with the bromodomain protein BRD4. The BRD4/ P-TEFb complex, which can phos...
Cohesin is a protein complex known for its essential role in chromosome segregation. However, cohesin and associated factors have additional functions in transcription, DNA damage repair, and chromosome condensation. The human cohesinopathy diseases are thought to stem not from defects in chromosome segregation but from gene expression. The role of cohesin in gene expression is not well understood. We used budding yeast strains bearing mutations analogous to the human cohesinopathy disease alleles under control of their native promoter to study gene expression. These mutations do not significantly affect chromosome segregation. Transcriptional profiling reveals that many targets of the transcriptional activator Gcn4 are induced in the eco1-W216G mutant background. The upregulation of Gcn4 was observed in many cohesin mutants, and this observation suggested protein translation was reduced. We demonstrate that the cohesinopathy mutations eco1-W216G and smc1-Q843 Δ are associated with defects in ribosome biogenesis and a reduction in the actively translating fraction of ribosomes, eiF2α-phosphorylation, and 35 S-methionine incorporation, all of which indicate a deficit in protein translation. Metabolic labeling shows that the eco1-W216G and smc1-Q843 Δ mutants produce less ribosomal RNA, which is expected to constrain ribosome biogenesis. Further analysis shows that the production of rRNA from an individual repeat is reduced while copy number remains unchanged. Similar defects in rRNA production and protein translation are observed in a human Roberts syndrome cell line. In addition, cohesion is defective specifically at the rDNA locus in the eco1-W216G mutant, as has been previously reported for Roberts syndrome. Collectively, our data suggest that cohesin proteins normally facilitate production of ribosomal RNA and protein translation, and this is one way they can influence gene expression. Reduced translational capacity could contribute to the human cohesinopathies.
SUMMARY Eleven-nineteen Lysine-rich Leukemia (ELL) participates in the Super Elongation Complex (SEC) with the Pol II CTD kinase P-TEFb. SEC is a key regulator in the expression of HOX genes in Mixed Lineage Leukemia (MLL) -based hematological malignancies, in the control of induced gene expression early in development, and in immediate early gene transcription. Here, we identify an SEC-like complex in Drosophila, as well as a distinct ELL-containing complex that lacks P-TEFb and other components of SEC named the “little elongation complex” (LEC). LEC subunits are highly enriched at RNA Polymerase II (Pol II) -transcribed small nuclear RNA (snRNA) genes, and the loss of LEC results in decreased snRNA expression in both flies and mammals. The specialization of the SEC and LEC complexes for mRNA and snRNA-containing genes, respectively, suggests the presence of specific classes of elongation factors for each class of genes transcribed by RNA polymerase II.
BackgroundOxidative stress (OS) is an important factor in brain aging and neurodegenerative diseases. Certain neurons in different brain regions exhibit selective vulnerability to OS. Currently little is known about the underlying mechanisms of this selective neuronal vulnerability. The purpose of this study was to identify endogenous factors that predispose vulnerable neurons to OS by employing genomic and biochemical approaches.ResultsIn this report, using in vitro neuronal cultures, ex vivo organotypic brain slice cultures and acute brain slice preparations, we established that cerebellar granule (CbG) and hippocampal CA1 neurons were significantly more sensitive to OS (induced by paraquat) than cerebral cortical and hippocampal CA3 neurons. To probe for intrinsic differences between in vivo vulnerable (CA1 and CbG) and resistant (CA3 and cerebral cortex) neurons under basal conditions, these neurons were collected by laser capture microdissection from freshly excised brain sections (no OS treatment), and then subjected to oligonucleotide microarray analysis. GeneChip-based transcriptomic analyses revealed that vulnerable neurons had higher expression of genes related to stress and immune response, and lower expression of energy generation and signal transduction genes in comparison with resistant neurons. Subsequent targeted biochemical analyses confirmed the lower energy levels (in the form of ATP) in primary CbG neurons compared with cortical neurons.ConclusionLow energy reserves and high intrinsic stress levels are two underlying factors for neuronal selective vulnerability to OS. These mechanisms can be targeted in the future for the protection of vulnerable neurons.
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