The Selective Paste Intrusion (SPI) method is a layer-by-layer additive manufacturing technique that allows for the production of complex geometries in concrete elements by selectively bonding aggregates with cement paste in a particle bed. To create reinforced concrete, the Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) process shall be integrated into SPI. This technique allows the production of almost free-formed reinforcement and thus complements the advantage of SPI to produce free-formed structures of almost any geometry. However, integration of WAAM into SPI poses a considerable challenge, as high temperatures are generated during the welding process. These temperatures can negatively affect the rheological properties of the cement paste, in turn the penetration behavior of the paste in the particle bed and, subsequently, the mechanical properties of the hardened concrete. A possible passive cooling strategy is to increase the protruding length of the reinforcement bars out of the particle-bed. This requires that the distance of the print nozzle to the particle bed is as well increased, since it must be possible to move it across the reinforcement. The objective was thus to investigate the effect of that distance on print quality and to quantify a maximum allowable distance for an adequate print quality (for the printer setting used) in terms of shape accuracy and concrete strength. Compressive and flexural strength tests as well as geometrical measurements using a 3D scanning method were performed on specimen, printed with varying print nozzle to particle bed distances. It can be stated that for the used SPI print-heads, nozzle-types and parameter settings, the distance between the nozzle and the particle bed should not exceed 50 mm to ensure sufficient print quality in both shape accuracy and mechanical strength.
Das Porensystem im Beton, bestehend aus Gel‐ und Kapillarporen, beeinflusst dessen Wasseraufnahmefähigkeit und so direkt auch den Frost‐Tausalz‐Widerstand. Unterschiedliche Expositionsbedingungen im jungen Alter des Betons haben dabei einen ausgeprägten Einfluss auf die Ausbildung des Porensystems. Um die Rolle der Vorkonditionierung auf das sich ausbildende Porengefüge und so den Frost‐Tausalz‐Widerstand von Beton zu klären, wurden Proben bei unterschiedlichen relativen Luftfeuchten vorkonditioniert und anschließend gemäß dem CDF‐Test untersucht. Es wurde festgestellt, dass der Frost‐Tausalz‐Widerstand von Proben mit einem Wasserzementwert von 0,40 maßgebend vom oberflächennahen Hydratationsgrad abhängt. Dieser variierte aufgrund der unterschiedlichen Luftfeuchten bei der Vorkonditionierung. Ausschlaggebendes Kriterium für den Frost‐Tausalz‐Widerstand der Proben mit einem Wasserzementwert von 0,55 stellt, bedingt durch das bei diesem w/z ausgeprägte Kapillarporensystem, der Grad der Wassersättigung dar. Proben mit einem besonders ausgeprägten Kapillarporensystem besaßen sehr hohe Abwitterungsbeträge. Abschließend wird ein auf einem künstlichen neuronalen Netz basierendes Prognosemodell vorgestellt. Dieses ist in der Lage, die Abwitterung von Mörteln im CDF‐Versuch anhand von Feuchtigkeitsmessungen vor einer Frost‐Tau‐Beanspruchung zu prognostizieren.
Damage induced by repetitive freezing and thawing processes is one of the critical factors that affect concrete durability in cold climates. This deterioration process manifests as surface scaling and internal damage. The damage processes are governed by physicochemical mechanisms that are active across multiple scales. In this contribution, we present a novel multiscale theoretical framework for estimating the critical pressure required for microcrack initiation during freezing and thawing of cementitious mortar. Continuum micromechanics and fracture mechanics is used to model the phenomena of microcrack initiation and growth. Damage at the microscale is upscaled to the level of the specimen using multilevel homogenization. The critical pressure is estimated using poromechanics at the microscopic scale. A theoretical analysis shows that in the frozen state, the material can resist higher pressures. As a consequence, the material is more susceptible to damage during thawing. The micromechanical predictions are within the range of the predictions obtained by electrokinetic theory.
Deterioration of concrete subjected to freezing and thawing climatic conditions is one of most important factors affecting the durability of concrete infrastructure in cold climates. The freeze-thaw resistance of cementitious materials like concrete and mortar can be determined by the CDF test (Capillary Suction of De-icing chemicals and Freeze-Thaw Test). Here, concrete specimens are subjected to repeated freeze-thaw cycles with simultaneous addition of de-icing salt and the amount of material weathered near the surface is determined. For concretes with adequate freeze-thaw resistance, this test method works very well. However, specimens with inadequate or unknown performance often experience increased edge weathering, which is caused by the detachment of the lateral isolation tape. The increasing edge influence thus leads to a falsification of the results and consequently to an underestimation of the actual freeze-thaw resistance of the material. In materials research in particular, however, concretes with high levels of weathering are studied in order to be able to investigate various factors of influence on the freeze-thaw resistance of concretes in a targeted manner. This paper presents a novel methodology that delivers new information regarding the weathering of CDF test samples and the associated distribution function of the height decrease using high resolution 3D scan data. The results indicate a correlation between the progression of the distribution function and the sample's maximum aggregate size. The change of the sample volume can be used to support the weathering results of the standard CDF methodology. The increase of the surface area is used to estimate the tortuosity of the sample surface. It indicates an asymptotic curve approaching a specific maximum value, which is dependent on the the weathering depth of the sample.
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