Energy Harvesting techniques are increasingly seen as the solution for freeing the wireless sensor nodes from their battery dependency. However, it remains evident that network performance features, such as network size, packet length, and duty cycle, are influenced by the sum of recovered energy. This paper proposes a new approach to defining the specifications of a stand-alone wireless node based on a Radio-frequency Energy Harvesting System (REHS). To achieve adequate performance regarding the range of the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), techniques for minimizing the energy consumed by the sensor node are combined with methods for optimizing the performance of the REHS. For more rigor in the design of the autonomous node, a comprehensive energy model of the node in a wireless network is established. For an equitable distribution of network charges between the different nodes that compose it, the Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol is used for this purpose. The model considers five energy-consumption sources, most of which are ignored in recently used models. By using the hardware parameters of commercial off-the-shelf components (Mica2 Motes and CC2520 of Texas Instruments), the energy requirement of a sensor node is quantified. A miniature REHS based on a judicious choice of rectifying diodes is then designed and developed to achieve optimal performance in the Industrial Scientific and Medical (ISM) band centralized at 2.45 GHz. Due to the mismatch between the REHS and the antenna, a band pass filter is designed to reduce reflection losses. A gradient method search is used to optimize the output characteristics of the adapted REHS. At 1 mW of input RF power, the REHS provides an output DC power of 0.57 mW and a comparison with the energy requirement of the node allows the Base Station (BS) to be located at 310 normalm from the wireless nodes when the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) has 100 nodes evenly spread over an area of 300 × 300 m2 and when each round lasts 10 min. The result shows that the range of the autonomous WSN increases when the controlled physical phenomenon varies very slowly. Having taken into account all the dissipation sources coexisting in a sensor node and using actual measurements of an REHS, this work provides the guidelines for the design of autonomous nodes based on REHS.
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) offer an attractive solution to many environmental, security and process monitoring. However, their lifetime remains very limited by battery capacity. Through the use of piezoelectric energy harvesting techniques, ambient vibration can be captured and converted into usable electricity to create selfpowering WSN which is not limited by finite battery energy. This paper investigates analytically and experimentally the performance of a WSN powered by a Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting System (PEHS) and a material block-level modeling considering most key energy consumption of a wireless sensor node in a star topology network is proposed. By using real hardware parameters of existing components, the proposed model is used to evaluate the energetic budget of the node. The sensor node performance is evaluated regarding transmit packet size, duty cycle and the number of nodes that can be deployed. From the spectral properties of the available vibration inside two moving vehicles (automobile and train), the maximal recoverable power for each type of vehicle is estimated. Using a PEHS based on a cantilever beam optimized for low-frequency applications, 6 mW power is recovered in the case of the train while a 12.5 mW power is reached in the case of the automobile. It is observed that the sink may not operate with the recovered energy. However, the sensor node can sense and transmit data with a maximum size of 105.5 kbits when the duty cycle is 4 × 10 −15. It is also achieved that the node is most effective when the measured physical phenomena vary slowly, such as the variations in temperature due to thermal inertia. Considering an optimized PEHS based on non-linear processing, it is shown that the sink can operate for 190% improvement of the recovered power.
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