The depletion of eosinophils represents an efficient strategy to alleviate allergic asthma, but the consequences of prolonged eosinophil deficiency for human health remain poorly understood. We show here that the ablation of eosinophils severely compromises antitumor immunity in syngeneic and genetic models of colorectal cancer (CRC), which can be attributed to defective Th1 and CD8+ T cell responses. The specific loss of GM-CSF signaling or IRF5 expression in the eosinophil compartment phenocopies the loss of the entire lineage. GM-CSF activates IRF5 in vitro and in vivo and can be administered recombinantly to improve tumor immunity. IL-10 counterregulates IRF5 activation by GM-CSF. CRC patients whose tumors are infiltrated by large numbers of eosinophils also exhibit robust CD8 T cell infiltrates and have a better prognosis than patients with eosinophillow tumors. The combined results demonstrate a critical role of eosinophils in tumor control in CRC and introduce the GM-CSF–IRF5 axis as a critical driver of the antitumor activities of this versatile cell type.

Extracellular RNA (exRNA) has recently expanded as a highly important area of study in biomarker discovery and cancer therapeutics. exRNA consists of diverse RNA subpopulations that are normally protected from degradation by incorporation into membranous vesicles or by lipid/protein association. They are found circulating in biofluids, and have proven highly promising for minimally invasive diagnostic and prognostic purposes, particularly in oncology. Recent work has made progress in our understanding of exRNAs-from their biogenesis, compartmentalization, and vesicle packaging to their various applications as biomarkers and therapeutics, as well as the new challenges that arise in isolation and purification for accurate and reproducible analysis. Here we review the most recent advancements in exRNA research.

In the past decade, single-cell transcriptomics has helped to uncover new cell types and states and led to the construction of a cellular compendium of health and disease. Despite this progress, some difficult-to-sequence cells remain absent from tissue atlases. Eosinophils—elusive granulocytes that are implicated in a plethora of human pathologies1–5—are among these uncharted cell types. The heterogeneity of eosinophils and the gene programs that underpin their pleiotropic functions remain poorly understood. Here we provide a comprehensive single-cell transcriptomic profiling of mouse eosinophils. We identify an active and a basal population of intestinal eosinophils, which differ in their transcriptome, surface proteome and spatial localization. By means of a genome-wide CRISPR inhibition screen and functional assays, we reveal a mechanism by which interleukin-33 (IL-33) and interferon-γ (IFNγ) induce the accumulation of active eosinophils in the inflamed colon. Active eosinophils are endowed with bactericidal and T cell regulatory activity, and express the co-stimulatory molecules CD80 and PD-L1. Notably, active eosinophils are enriched in the lamina propria of a small cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel disease, and are closely associated with CD4+ T cells. Our findings provide insights into the biology of eosinophils and highlight the crucial contribution of this cell type to intestinal homeostasis, immune regulation and host defence. Furthermore, we lay a framework for the characterization of eosinophils in human gastrointestinal diseases.

Eosinophils are traditionally considered as end-stage effector cells involved in the pathogenesis of Th2 immune-mediated disorders as well as in the protection against parasite infection. However, this restricted view has recently been challenged by a series of studies revealing the highly plastic nature of these cells and implication in various homeostatic processes. Large numbers of eosinophils reside in the lamina propria of the gastrointestinal tract, at the front line of host defence, where they contribute to maintain the intestinal epithelial barrier function in the face of inflammation-associated epithelial cell damage. Eosinophils confer active protection against bacterial pathogens capable of penetrating the mucosal barrier through the release of cytotoxic compounds and the generation of extracellular DNA traps. Eosinophils also integrate tissue-specific cytokine signals such as IFN-γ, which synergise with bacterial recognition pathways to enforce different context-dependent functional responses, thereby ensuring a rapid adaptation to the ever-changing intestinal environment. The ability of eosinophils to regulate local immune responses and respond to microbial stimuli further supports the pivotal role of these cells in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis at the intestinal interface.

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Eosinophils are best known for their effector functions in settings of parasitic infection or allergen challenge, but have also increasingly been implicated in immune regulation at mucosal sites. Here, we show using bacterial infection and antigen challenge models that extrathymic Foxp3 + regulatory T-cells that arise de novo in the context of bacterial infection require an intact eosinophil compartment. Mouse strains with a constitutive or conditional eosinophil deficiency, or with an eosinophil-specific ablation of Tgfb , lack bacterially induced neuropilin-negative, RORγt-positive gastrointestinal Treg populations in models of Helicobacter pylori , Helicobacter hepaticus and Citrobacter rodentium infection, as well as in the steady state colon and upon oral ovalbumin challenge. Treg priming in lymph nodes appears not to be impaired. Eosinophil-dependent tissue-resident Tregs express CTLA4, ICOS, CD39 and T-bet in addition to RORγt. Eosinophils reside in close proximity to Tregs in infected tissues, and specifically induce the expansion of newly formed Tregs, but not conventional T-cells in vivo and in vitro. TGF-β expression in eosinophils is induced by bacterial contact and during allergen exposure. Specific Tgfb ablation in eosinophils and the associated Treg defects result in excessive T-cell responses in the examined Th2- but not Th1-polarized settings.

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The homeostasis of the gut epithelium relies upon continuous renewal and proliferation of crypt-resident intestinal epithelial stem cells (IESCs). Wnt/β-catenin signaling is required for IESC maintenance, however, it remains unclear how this pathway selectively governs the identity and proliferative decisions of IESCs. Here, we took advantage of knock-in mice harboring transgenic β-catenin alleles with mutations that specifically impair the recruitment of N- or C-terminal transcriptional co-factors. We show that C-terminally-recruited transcriptional co-factors of β-catenin act as all-or-nothing regulators of Wnt-target gene expression. Blocking their interactions with β-catenin rapidly induces loss of IESCs and intestinal homeostasis. Conversely, N-terminally recruited co-factors fine-tune β-catenin’s transcriptional output to ensure proper self-renewal and proliferative behaviour of IESCs. Impairment of N-terminal interactions triggers transient hyperproliferation of IESCs, eventually resulting in exhaustion of the self-renewing stem cell pool. IESC mis-differentiation, accompanied by unfolded protein response stress and immune infiltration, results in a process resembling aberrant “villisation” of intestinal crypts. Our data suggest that IESC-specific Wnt/β-catenin output requires selective modulation of gene expression by transcriptional co-factors.