There is extensive evidence indicating that new neurons are generated in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian hippocampus, a region of the brain that is important for learning and memory. However, it is not known whether these new neurons become functional, as the methods used to study adult neurogenesis are limited to fixed tissue. We use here a retroviral vector expressing green fluorescent protein that only labels dividing cells, and that can be visualized in live hippocampal slices. We report that newly generated cells in the adult mouse hippocampus have neuronal morphology and can display passive membrane properties, action potentials and functional synaptic inputs similar to those found in mature dentate granule cells. Our findings demonstrate that newly generated cells mature into functional neurons in the adult mammalian brain.

In the adult hippocampus and olfactory bulb, neural progenitor cells generate neurons that functionally integrate into the existing circuits. To understand how neuronal differentiation occurs in the adult hippocampus, we labeled dividing progenitor cells with a retrovirus expressing green fluorescent protein and studied the morphological and functional properties of their neuronal progeny over the following weeks. During the first week neurons had an irregular shape and immature spikes and were synaptically silent. Slow GABAergic synaptic inputs first appeared during the second week, when neurons exhibited spineless dendrites and migrated into the granule cell layer. In contrast, glutamatergic afferents were detected by the fourth week in neurons displaying mature excitability and morphology. Interestingly, fast GABAergic responses were the latest to appear. It is striking that neuronal maturation in the adult hippocampus follows a precise sequence of connectivity (silent 3 slow GABA 3 glutamate 3 fast GABA) that resembles hippocampal development. We conclude that, unlike what is observed in the olfactory bulb, the hippocampus maintains the same developmental rules for neuronal integration through adulthood.

Adult neurogenesis occurs in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb of the mammalian CNS. Recent studies have demonstrated that newborn granule cells of the adult hippocampus are postsynaptic targets of excitatory and inhibitory neurons, but evidence of synapse formation by the axons of these cells is still lacking. By combining retroviral expression of green fluorescent protein in adult-born neurons of the mouse dentate gyrus with immuno-electron microscopy, we found output synapses that were formed by labeled terminals on appropriate target cells in the CA3 area and the hilus. Furthermore, retroviral expression of channelrhodopsin-2 allowed us to light-stimulate newborn granule cells and identify postsynaptic target neurons by whole-cell recordings in acute slices. Our structural and functional evidence indicates that axons of adult-born granule cells establish synapses with hilar interneurons, mossy cells and CA3 pyramidal cells and release glutamate as their main neurotransmitter.Increasing evidence supports the hypothesis that neurogenesis is a physiologically important event in the adult hippocampus, but the precise role of newly generated cells in the hippocampal network remains unknown 1-5 . Understanding how newborn granule cells may contribute to information processing in the adult hippocampus requires a detailed analysis of their connectivity and function. Previous studies have clearly demonstrated that newborn neurons in the adult hippocampus receive morphologically mature axo-somatic, axo-dendritic and axospinous synapses and that those inputs arising from the entorhinal cortex and local inhibitory interneurons are fully functional 6-13 . To influence information processing in the hippocampal network, new granule cells must also contact the appropriate neuronal targets, but this capability has not yet been demonstrated because of technical challenges.Correspondence should be addressed to F.H.G. (gage@salk.edu) or A.F.S. (aschinder@leloir.org.ar). 4 These authors contributed equally to this work. AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS N.T. contributed to the concept, designed and carried out the structural experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. D.A.L. contributed to the concept, designed and performed the functional experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. C.Z. contributed to the experimental design, provided samples for the structural experiments, carried out and analyzed confocal images of presynaptic terminals, and revised the manuscript. G.L. prepared retroviral stocks, performed immunofluorescence and obtained images of ChR2-positive neurons. C.E.R. contributed to setting up the technique for immuno-electron microscopy of GFP, the analysis of electron micrographs, and the writing and revision of the manuscript. F.H.G. and A.F.S. contributed to the concept, designed the experiments, analyzed the data, wrote the manuscript and provided financial support. In this study, we searched for structural and functional evidence for output synapses of adultborn granule cells. Mossy...

GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult brain. Early in development, however, GABAergic synaptic transmission is excitatory and can exert widespread trophic effects. During the postnatal period, GABAergic responses undergo a switch from being excitatory to inhibitory. Here, we show that the switch is delayed by chronic blockade of GABA(A) receptors, and accelerated by increased GABA(A) receptor activation. In contrast, blockade of glutamatergic transmission or action potentials has no effect. Furthermore, GABAergic activity modulated the mRNA levels of KCC2, a K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter whose expression correlates with the switch. Finally, we report that GABA can alter the properties of depolarization-induced Ca(2+) influx. Thus, GABA acts as a self-limiting trophic factor during neural development.