Red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) has experienced a substantial decline across most of its range in eastern North America over the past century and probably also in the disjunct Ontario populations where it now occurs only in small isolated stands. Measurements of cone and seed traits from natural populations were used as indicators of the reproductive and genetic status of red spruce across the northern margins of its range in Canada. Cone and seed traits were quantified to provide reproductive benchmarks for assessing and monitoring population viability. Reduced fecundity and seedling height growth were observed in some of the smallest Ontario populations, suggesting some inbreeding depression in both vegetative and reproductive components of fitness. Nevertheless, the reproductive status of these small isolated Ontario populations compared favorably with the much larger, more extensive Maritime populations in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Significantly higher proportions of aborted (nonpollinated) seeds and lower proportions of filled seeds suggested poorer pollination conditions in the Maritimes in 1996. The proportion of empty seed, which was used to estimate inbreeding levels, was significantly and negatively related to seedling height growth. In the short-term, the Ontario populations, which probably represent relatively recent remnants of a broader past distribution, generally appeared to be quite resilient to the effects of small population size on fecundity and progeny fitness. In the longer term, continuing decline in population sizes and numbers may be expected to erode reproductive success and genetic diversity through the effects of inbreeding, genetic drift, and changes in mating behavior. The reproductive indicators described here have general validity for assessing and monitoring reproductive and genetic aspects of population viability in conifers.Key words: Picea rubens, reproductive success, reproductive fitness indicators, inbreeding, population viability, conservation.

We studied the mating system of white spruce (Picea glauca) in a landscape fragmented by agriculture in northern Ontario, Canada. We sampled 23 stands that ranged in size from 1 to 4500 trees isolated by 250-3000 m from the nearest other stand. Six polymorphic allozyme loci from four enzyme systems were used to genotype approximately 10 000 embryos from 104 families. We detected no allele frequency heterogeneity in the pollen pool among stands or families (F FT ¼ À0.025). Overall, estimates of outcrossing were high (t m ¼ 94% and mean t s ¼ 91%) but significantly different from unity. Bi-parental inbreeding (t m -t s ¼ 3.2%) was low but significantly different from zero. Allozyme-based outcrossing estimates did not differ significantly among three stand-size classes (SSCs): small (o10 trees), medium (10-100 trees) and large (Z100 trees). The number of effective pollen donors was high in all SSCs, but was significantly lower in small stands (N ep ¼ 62.5) than in medium-sized and large stands (both N ep ¼ 143). The primary selfing rate was significantly higher in medium stands than in large stands. We found no significant difference in genetic diversity measures in the filial (seed) population among SSCs. Overall, these results indicate that white spruce stands in this fragmented landscape are resistant to genetic diversity losses, primarily through high pollen-mediated gene-flow and early selection against inbred embryos. We discuss the importance of using seed data, in conjunction with genetic data, to evaluate the impacts of fragmentation on natural populations.

In the absence of sufficient data from directed studies of old-growth forests in the Acadian Forest Region (AFR), we must rely on a general knowledge of forest ecology and natural succession, population biology, disturbance dynamics, and palynological evidence to understand the probable extent of old-growth, late-successional forest types before European settlement, their role in the biological diversity of Acadian forests, and the silvicultural prescriptions required to maintain a component of such old growth (OG) on the landscape. The structural features of representative Acadian old growth can be understood from the few remaining stands of such forest in the AFR and from studies in the closely related forest types of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest Region of Canada and other eastern North American temperate-zone forests. Several hundred years of land clearing for agriculture and timber harvesting has eliminated most of the old-growth forests in the Maritime provinces of Canada. Nevertheless, our limited knowledge of OG suggests that, when the average age of the dominant and co-dominant trees of the typical late-successional species associations of the AFR has reached about 150 years, such forests generally appear to have attained most of the structural features commonly associated with old-growth forests (e.g., standing and fallen, dead and dying trees in various stages of decay, a layered, multi-age canopy structure). What little OG remains is largely restricted to small, isolated stands, often associated with steep gorges that were inaccessible to harvesting or areas that were otherwise protected or avoided being harvested. Late-successional, old-growth forest types dominated by relatively shade-tolerant, long-lived species such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marsh.), beech (Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.), eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr.), and red spruce (Picea rubens Sarg.) and with a significant component of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.) and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt.) often represent the final stages of forest stand development. Such forests may be considered archetypical of OG in the AFR. Forests dominated by these tree species mixtures tend to regenerate naturally in forest canopy gaps left by small-scale disturbances created by fallen individual trees or small groups of trees, rather than the catastrophic, stand-replacing disturbances normally associated with boreal forests. Our objectives were (i) to describe some of the remaining old-growth forest types and their extent in the AFR, (ii) to present some perspectives on their role in biodiversity conservation, and (iii) to present a basis for developing strategies for

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