There is some evidence that zinc oxide (ZnO) protects against intestinal diseases. However, despite the suggestions that ZnO may have an antibacterial effect, the mechanisms of this protective effect have not yet been elucidated. We investigated the potential benefits of ZnO in protecting intestinal cells from damage induced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC, strain K88) and the related mechanisms, using human Caco-2 enterocytes. Cell permeability, measured as transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), was unaffected by 0.01 and 1 mmol/L ZnO treatments and moderately increased by 5 mmol/L ZnO, compared with untreated cells. Transfer of (14)C-inulin was slightly increased by 5 mmol/L ZnO compared with untreated cells; transfer was unaffected by lower concentrations. The TEER and (14)C-inulin transfer were lower in ETEC-infected cells than in uninfected cells. Treatment of ETEC exposure with 0.2 mmol/L ZnO prevented disruption of membrane integrity. The ETEC was able to adhere to enterocytes and, to some extent, invade the cells. The ZnO treatment reduced bacterial adhesion and blocked bacterial invasion. The ETEC infection upregulated the expression of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin-8, growth-related oncogene-alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and reduced that of the anti-inflammatory cytokine transforming growth factor-beta, compared with uninfected cells. The addition of 0.2 or 1 mmol/L ZnO counteracted the alteration of cytokine mRNA levels caused by ETEC. The protective effects of ZnO were not due to any antibacterial activity, because the viability of ETEC grown in a medium containing ZnO was unaffected. In conclusion, ZnO may protect intestinal cells from ETEC infection by inhibiting the adhesion and internalization of bacteria, preventing the increase of tight junction permeability and modulating cytokine gene expression.

We investigated whether spray-dried plasma (SDP) improved growth and health of piglets challenged with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K88 (ETEC). Forty-eight pigs weaned at 21 d (BW = 4.88 +/- 0.43 kg) received one of four diets containing 6% SDP or fish proteins (as-fed basis) either nonmedicated (SDP-NM and FP-NM diets) or medicated with 0 or 250 mg/kg of colistine + 500 mg/kg of amoxycycline (SDP-M and FP-M diets), for 15 d. On d 4, pigs were orally challenged with ETEC. On d 15, eight pigs per dietary group were killed, blood and saliva were collected for analysis of K88 fimbriae-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)-A, and jejunum was removed for villi preparation, histological analysis, and cytokine expression. The presence or absence of K88 receptors (K88+ and K88- pigs respectively) was determined by villous adhesion assay. Effects of protein source on ADG (P = 0.04) and ADFI (P < 0.01), as well of medication on ADFI (P < 0.02), of all pigs were observed. In sacrified pigs, there was an effect of protein source on ADG (P = 0.03) and ADFI (P < 0.001), as well an interaction between medication and presence of K88 receptor (P = 0.02) for feed:gain ratio. Plasma K88 specific IgA were low in all K88 pigs and higher in K88+ pigs fed FP-NM compared with all the other groups (P < 0.05), except SDP-M. An interaction was found among protein source, medication, and presence of K88 receptors (P = 0.04). Saliva IgA concentrations were high in all pigs fed FP-NM and low in all other pigs. Jejunum of pigs fed FP-NM showed some ulcerations, edema, and mild inflammatory cell infiltration (ICI). In pigs fed FP-M, edema was reduced. Conversely, only a mild ICI was observed in pigs fed SDP-NM and SDP-M. Crypt depth was increased in K88+ pigs fed SDP-NM and an interaction between protein source and presence of K88 receptors was observed (P < 0.05). Expressions of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin (IL)-8 were lower in pigs fed SDP-NM and SDP-M than in those fed FP-NM and FP-M, either K88- or K88+ (P < 0.01). In pigs fed FP diets, expression of IL-8 tended to increase (P = 0.08) in K88+ compared with K88- subjects. Expression of interferon-gamma increased in K88 and K88+ pigs fed FP-M as compared with other pigs (P < 0.01). These results indicate that feeding with SDP improved growth performance and protected against E. coli-induced inflammatory status, and suggest that use of SDP-NM can be considered a valid antibiotic alternative.

Lactobacilli have a potential to overcome intestinal disorders; however, the exact mode of action is still largely unknown. In this study, we have used the intestinal porcine intestinal IPEC-1 epithelial cells as a model to investigate a possible protective activity of a new Lactobacillus species, the L. sobrius DSM 16698(T), against intestinal injury induced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88 infection and the underlying mechanisms. Treatment of infected cells with L. sobrius strongly reduced the pathogen adhesion. L. sobrius was also able to prevent the ETEC-induced membrane damage by inhibiting delocalization of zonula occludens (ZO)-1, reduction of occludin amount, rearrangement of F-actin, and dephosphorylation of occludin caused by ETEC. RT-PCR and ELISA experiments showed that L. sobrius counteracted the ETEC-induced increase of IL-8 and upregulated the IL-10 expression. The involvement of IL-8 in the deleterious effects of ETEC was proven by neutralization of IL-8 with a specific antibody. A crucial role of IL-10 was indicated by blockage of IL-10 production with neutralizing anti-IL-10 antibody that fully abrogated the L. sobrius protection. L. sobrius was also able to inhibit the internalization of ETEC, which was likely favored by the leaking barrier. The protective effects were not found with L. amylovorus DSM 20531(T) treatment, a strain derived from cattle waste but phylogenetically closely related to L. sobrius. Together, the data indicate that L. sobrius exerts protection against the harmful effects of ETEC by different mechanisms, including pathogen adhesion inhibition and maintenance of membrane barrier integrity through IL-10 regulation.

Probiotic bacteria may provide protection against intestinal damage induced by pathogens, but the underlying mechanisms are still largely unknown. We investigated whether Bifidobacterium animalis MB5 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) protected intestinal Caco-2 cells from the inflammation-associated response induced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88, by inhibiting pathogen attachment to the cells, which is the first step of ETEC pathogenicity, and regulating neutrophil recruitment, a crucial component of inflammation. A partial reduction of ETEC adhesion was exerted by probiotics and their culture supernatant fractions either undigested or digested with proteases. ETEC viability was unaffected by the presence of B. animalis, LGG or their supernatant fractions in the culture medium, indicating an absence of probiotic bactericidal activity. Probiotics and their supernatant fractions, either undigested or digested with proteases, strongly inhibited the neutrophil transmigration caused by ETEC. Both B. animalis and LGG counteracted the pathogen-induced up regulation of IL-8, growth-related oncogene-a and epithelial neutrophil-activating peptide-78 gene expression, which are chemokines essential for neutrophil migration. Moreover, the probiotics prevented the ETEC-induced increased expression of IL-1b and TNF-a and decrease of transforming growth factor-a, which are regulators of chemokine expression. These results indicate that B. animalis MB5 and LGG protect intestinal cells from the inflammation-associated response caused by ETEC K88 by partly reducing pathogen adhesion and by counteracting neutrophil migration, probably through the regulation of chemokine and cytokine expression.

Zinc may contribute to the host defense by maintaining the membrane barrier. In this study, we questioned whether zinc deficiency affects the membrane function and junctional structure of intestinal epithelial cells, causing increased neutrophil migration. We used the Caco-2 cell line grown in control (C), zinc-deficient, or zinc-replete medium until differentiation. Zinc deprivation induced a decrease of transepithelial electrical resistance and alterations to tight and adherens junctions, with delocalization of zonula occludens (ZO-1), occludin, beta-catenin, and E-cadherin. Disorganization of F-actin and beta-tubulin was also found in zinc deficiency. These changes were associated with a loss of the amounts of ZO-1, occluding, and beta-tubulin. In addition, zinc deficiency caused a dephosphorylation of occludin and hyperphosphorylation of beta-catenin and ZO-1. Disruption of membrane barrier integrity led to increased migration of neutrophils. In addition, zinc deficiency induced an increase in the secretion of interleukin-8, epithelial neutrophil activating peptide-78, and growth-regulated oncogene-alpha, alterations that were not found when culture medium was replete with zinc. These results provide new information on the critical role played by dietary zinc in the maintenance of membrane barrier integrity and in controlling inflammatory cell infiltration.

The highly nutritional and ecofriendly Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) has hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, and antihypertensive properties. Spirulina contains functional compounds, such as phenolics, phycocyanins, and polysaccharides, with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunostimulating effects. Studies conducted on Spirulina suggest that it is safe in healthy subjects, but attitude to eating probably affects the acceptability of Spirulina containing foods. Although the antioxidant effect of Spirulina is confirmed by the intervention studies, the concerted modulation of antioxidant and inflammatory responses, suggested by in vitro and animal studies, requires more confirmation in humans. Spirulina supplements seem to affect more effectively the innate immunity, promoting the activity of natural killer cells. The effects on cytokines and on lymphocytes' proliferation depend on age, gender, and body weight differences. In this context, ageing and obesity are both associated with chronic low grade inflammation, immune impairment, and intestinal dysbiosis. Microbial-modulating activities have been reported in vitro, suggesting that the association of Spirulina and probiotics could represent a new strategy to improve the growth of beneficial intestinal microbiota. Although Spirulina might represent a functional food with potential beneficial effects on human health, the human interventions used only supplements. Therefore, the effect of food containing Spirulina should be evaluated in the future.

Inflammation derived from pathogen infection involves the activation of toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. Despite the established immunomodulatory activities of probiotics, studies relating the ability of such bacteria to inhibit the TLR signaling pathways are limited or controversial. In a previous study we showed that Lactobacillus amylovorus DSM 16698T, a novel lactobacillus isolated from unweaned pigs, protects the intestinal cells from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88 infection through cytokine regulation. In the present study we investigated whether the ability of L. amylovorus to counteract the inflammatory status triggered by ETEC in intestine is elicited through inhibition of the TLR4 signaling pathway. We used the human intestinal Caco-2/TC7 cells and intestinal explants isolated from 5 week-old crossbreed Pietrain/Duroc/Large-White piglets, treated with ETEC, L. amylovorus or L. amylovorus cell free supernatant, either alone or simultaneously with ETEC. Western blot analysis showed that L. amylovorus and its cell free supernatant suppress the activation of the different steps of TLR4 signaling in Caco-2/TC7 cells and pig explants, by inhibiting the ETEC induced increase in the level of TLR4 and MyD88, the phosphorylation of the IKKα, IKKβ, IκBα and NF-κB subunit p65, as well as the over-production of inflammatory cytokines IL-8 and IL-1β. The immunofluorescence analysis confirms the lack of phospho-p65 translocation into the nucleus. These anti-inflammatory effects are achieved through modulation of the negative regulators Tollip and IRAK-M. We also found that L. amylovorus blocks the up-regulation of the extracellular heat shock protein (Hsp)72 and Hsp90, that are critical for TLR4 function. By using anti-TLR2 antibody, we demonstrate that TLR2 is required for the suppression of TLR4 signaling activation. These results may contribute to develop therapeutic interventions using L. amylovorus in intestinal disorders of piglets and humans.

The 2 probiotic mixtures were able to prevent the TNBS-induced colitis; the L. acidophilus and B. longum mixture was the most effective. Other than an involvement of LPLs, our results report a novel importance of the IELs population in probiotic protection.