This work is a comprehensive review of the Chemical-Looping Combustion (CLC) and Chemical-Looping Reforming (CLR) processes reporting the main advances in these technologies up to 2010. These processes are based on the transfer of the oxygen from air to the fuel by means of a solid oxygen-carrier avoiding direct contact between fuel and air for different final purposes. CLC has arisen during last years as a very promising combustion technology for power plants and industrial applications with inherent CO 2 capture which avoids the energetic penalty present in other competing technologies.CLR uses the chemical looping cycles for H 2 production with additional advantages if CO 2 capture is also considered.The review compiles the main milestones reached during last years in the development of these technologies regarding the use of gaseous or solid fuels, the oxygen-carrier development, the continuous operation experience, and modelling at several scales. Up to 2010, more than 700 different materials based on Ni, Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, as well as other mixed oxides and low cost materials, have been compiled. Especial emphasis has been done in those oxygen-carriers tested under continuous operation in Chemical-Looping 2 prototypes. The total time of operational experience (≈ 3500 h) in different CLC units in the size range 0.3-120 kW th , has allowed to demonstrate the technology and to gain in maturity. To help in the design, optimization, and scale-up of the CLC process, modelling work is also reviewed. Different levels of modelling have been accomplished, including fundamentals of the gas-solid reactions in the oxygen-carriers, modelling of the air-and fuel-reactors, and integration of the CLC systems in the power plant. Considering the great advances reached up to date in a very short period of time, it can be said that CLC and CLR are very promising technologies within the framework of the CO 2 capture options.

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Chemical-looping combustion (CLC) is a two-step combustion process that produces a pure CO 2 stream, ready for compression and sequestration. A CLC system is composed by two reactors, an air and a fuel reactor, and an oxygen carrier (OC) circulating between the reactors, which transfers the oxygen necessary for the fuel combustion from the air to the fuel. This system can be designed similar to a circulating fluidised bed, but with the addition of a bubbling fluidised bed on the return side. A mapping of the range of operational conditions, design values, and OC characteristics is presented for the most usual metal oxides (CuO, Fe 2 O 3 , and NiO) and different fuel gases (CH 4 , H 2 , and CO). The pressure operation of a CLC system is also considered. Moreover, a comparison of the possible use of three high reactive OCs (Cu10Al-I, Fe45Al-FG, Ni40Al-FG) previously characterised is carried out. It was found that the circulation rates and the solids inventories are linked, and the possible operating conditions are closely dependent on the reactivity of the OCs. The operational limits of the solids circulation rates, given by the mass and heat balances in the system, were defined for the different type of OCs. Moreover, a plot to calculate the solids inventories in a CLC system, valid for any type of OC and fuel gas, is proposed. The minimum solids inventories depended on the fuel gas used, and followed the order CH 4 > CO > H 2 . Values of minimum solids inventories in a range from 40 to 133 kg/MW f were found for the OCs used in this work, excepting for the reaction of Fe45Al-FG with CH 4 , which needs a higher amount of solids because of its low reactivity. From the economic analysis carried out it was found the cost of the OC particles does not represent any limitation to the development of the CLC technology. ᭧

Chemical-looping combustion (CLC) has been suggested as an energetically efficient method for capture of carbon dioxide from the combustion of fuel gas. This technique involves the use of an oxygen carrier that transfers oxygen from the air to the fuel, preventing direct contact between them. The oxygen carrier is composed of a metal oxide as an oxygen source, and an inert as a binder for increasing the mechanical strength of the carrier. In this work, 240 samples composed of 40-80% of Cu, Fe, Mn, or Ni oxides on Al 2 O 3 , sepiolite, SiO 2 , TiO 2 , or ZrO 2 were prepared by mechanical mixing as cylindrical extrudates. The samples were sintered at four temperatures between 950 and 1300 °C. The effects of the chemical nature and composition of the carrier and the sintering temperature were investigated by reactivity tests in a thermogravimetric analyzer using CH 4 as fuel, and the mechanical strength of the solids. On the basis of these properties, the most promising carriers to be used in a CLC system were selected. The best Cu-based oxygen carriers were those prepared using SiO 2 or TiO 2 as inert, and sintered at 950 °C. Among the Fe-based oxygen carriers, those prepared with Al 2 O 3 and ZrO 2 as inerts showed the best behavior. ZrO 2 was the best inert for those Mn-based oxygen carriers. Finally, TiO 2 was the best inert for those Ni-based oxygen carriers.

As previously reported for for solventless reactions, gold nanoparticles supported on ceria are also excellent general heterogeneous catalysts for the aerobic oxidations of alcohols in organic solvents. Among organic solvents it was found that toluene is a convenient one. A systematic study on the influence of the particle size and gold content on the support has established that the activity correlates linearly with the total number of external gold atoms, and with the surface coverage of the support. Amongst catalysts with different supports, but similar gold particle size and content, gold on ceria exhibits the highest activity. By means of a kinetic study (influence of sigma+ parameter, kinetic isotopic effect, temperature, alcohol concentration and oxygen pressure) a mechanistic proposal consisting of the formation of metal-alcoholate, beta-hydride shift from carbon to metal and M--H oxidation has been proposed that explains all experimental results.

Chemical Looping Combustion (CLC) has arisen during last years as a very promising combustion technology for power plants and industrial applications, with inherent CO 2 capture which avoids the energy penalty imposed on other competing technologies. The use of solid fuels in CLC has been highly developed in the last decade and currently stands at a technical readiness level (TRL) of 6. In this paper, experience gained during CLC operation in continuous units is reviewed and appraised, focusing mainly on technical and environmental issues relating to the use of solid fuels. Up to now, more than 2700 hours of operational experience has been reported in 19 pilot plants ranging from 0.5 kW th to 4 MW th. When designing a CLC unit, the preferred configuration for the scale-up of CLC of solid fuels is a two circulating fluidized beds (CFB) system. Coal has been the most commonly used solid fuel in CLC, but biomass has recently emerged as a very promising option to achieve negative emissions using bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS). Mostly low cost iron and manganese materials have been used as oxygen carriers in the so called in-situ gasification CLC (iG-CLC). The development of Chemical Looping with oxygen uncoupling (CLOU) makes a qualitative step forward in the solid fuel combustion, due to the use of materials able to release oxygen. The performance and environmental issues of CLC of solid fuels is evaluated here. Regarding environmental aspects, the pollutant emissions (SO 2 , NO x , etc.) released into the atmosphere from the air reactor are no cause of concern for the environment. However, the presence of SO 2 , NO x and Hg at the exit of the fuel reactor affects CO 2 quality, which must be taken into account during the later compression and purification stages. The effect of the main variables affecting CLC performance is evaluated for fuel conversion, CO 2 capture rate, and combustion efficiency obtained in different CLC 3 units. Solid fuel conversion is normally not complete during operation, due to the undesired loss of char. A methodology is presented to extrapolate the current information to what could be expected in a larger CLC system. CO 2 capture near 100% has been reported using a highly efficient carbon stripper, highly reactive fuels (such as lignites and biomass, etc.) or by the CLOU process. Operational experience in iG-CLC has showed that it is not possible to reach complete fuel combustion, making an additional oxygen polishing step necessary. For the further scale-up, it is essential to reduce the unburnt compounds at the fuel reactor outlet. Proposals to achieve this reduction already exist and include both improvement to the gas-oxygen carrier contact, or new design concepts based on the current scheme for iG-CLC. In addition, CLOU based on copper materials has shown that complete fuel combustion could be achieved. Main challenges for the future development and scale-up of CLC technology have been also identified. A breakthrough in the future development of CLC technology for ...

Ilmenite, a natural mineral composed of FeTiO 3 , is a low-cost and promising oxygen carrier (OC) for solid fuels combustion in a chemical-looping combustion (CLC) system. The aim of this study is to analyze the behavior of ilmenite as an OC in CLC and the changes in its properties through redox cycles. Experiments consisting of reduction-oxidation cycles in a thermogravimetric analyzer were carried out using the main products of coal pyrolysis and gasification, that is, CH 4 , H 2 , and CO, as reducing gases. Characterizations of ilmenite through scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Hg porosimetry, N 2 fisisorption, He pycnometry, and hardness measures have been performed. Both fresh and previously calcined at 1223 K ilmenite have been used as initial OCs. Fresh ilmenite reacts slowly; nevertheless, there is a gain in reactivity in reduction as well as in oxidation with the number of cycles. This activation occurs for all tested fuel gases and is faster if ilmenite has been previously calcined. The initial oxygen transport capacity was measured to be 4%, and it decreases with the number of cycles up to 2.1% after 100 redox cycles. Nevertheless, ilmenite shows adequate values of reactivity and oxygen transport capacity for its use in CLC technology with solid fuels. The trade-off between the increase in reactivity and decrease in oxygen transport capacity on ilmenite performance in a CLC system has been evaluated through the estimation of the solids inventory needed in the fuel reactor. If fresh or calcined ilmenite is fed into the CLC system, the activation process could happen in the CLC itself. Also, a previous step for activation can be designed.

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