SUMMARY Inborn errors of metabolism (IEMs) occur with high incidence in human populations. Especially prevalent among these are inborn deficiencies in fatty acid β-oxidation (FAO) clinically associated with developmental neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism. We now report that neural stem cell (NSC)-autonomous insufficiencies in activity of TMLHE (an autism-risk factor that supports long-chain FAO by catalyzing carnitine biosynthesis), of CPT1A (enzyme required for long-chain FAO transport into mitochondria), or of fatty acid mobilization from lipid droplets reduced NSC pools in mouse embryonic neocortex. Lineage tracing experiments demonstrated that reduced flux through the FAO pathway potentiated NSC symmetric differentiating divisions at the expense of self-renewing stem cell division modes. The collective data reveal a key role for FAO in controlling NSC-to-IPC transition in mammalian embryonic brain, and suggest NSC self-renewal as a cellular mechanism underlying the association between IEMs and autism.
Highlights d Glycolysis in T cells/PBMCs from T2D subjects fails to stimulate T2D inflammation d T cells from T2D subjects have altered mitochondria d Altered import or oxidation of fatty acids activates inflammation in healthy cells d Mitochondrial changes combine with fatty acid metabolites to activate inflammation
Circulating redox state changes, determined by the ratio of reduced/oxidized pairs of different metabolites, have been associated with metabolic diseases. However, the pathogenic contribution of these changes and whether they modulate normal tissue function is unclear. As alterations in hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogen metabolism are hallmarks that characterize insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, we tested whether imposed changes in the extracellular redox state could modulate these processes. Thus, primary hepatocytes were treated with different ratios of the following physiological extracellular redox couples: β-hydroxybutyrate (βOHB)/acetoacetate (Acoc), reduced glutathione (GSH)/oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and cysteine/cystine. Exposure to a more oxidized ratio via extracellular βOHB/Acoc, GSH/GSSG, and cysteine/cystine in hepatocytes from fed mice increased intracellular hydrogen peroxide without causing oxidative damage. On the other hand, addition of more reduced ratios of extracellular βOHB/Acoc led to increased NAD(P)H and maximal mitochondrial respiratory capacity in hepatocytes. Greater βOHB/Acoc ratios were also associated with decreased β-oxidation, as expected with enhanced lipogenesis. In hepatocytes from fasted mice, a more extracellular reduced state of βOHB/Acoc led to increased alanine-stimulated gluconeogenesis and enhanced glycogen synthesis capacity from added glucose. Thus, we demonstrated for the first time that the extracellular redox state regulates the major metabolic functions of the liver and involves changes in intracellular NADH, hydrogen peroxide, and mitochondrial respiration. Because redox state in the blood can be communicated to all metabolically sensitive tissues, this work confirms the hypothesis that circulating redox state may be an important regulator of whole body metabolism and contribute to alterations associated with metabolic diseases.
BackgroundMany tissues play an important role in metabolic homeostasis and the development of diabetes and obesity. We hypothesized that the circulating redox metabolome is a master metabolic regulatory system that impacts all organs and modulates reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, lipid peroxidation, energy production and changes in lipid turnover in many cells including adipocytes.MethodsDifferentiated human preadipocytes were exposed to the redox couples, lactate (L) and pyruvate (P), β–hydroxybutyrate (βOHB) and acetoacetate (Acoc), and the thiol-disulfides cysteine/ cystine (Cys/CySS) and GSH/GSSG for 1.5–4 hours. ROS measurements were done with CM-H2DCFDA. Lipid peroxidation (LPO) was assessed by a modification of the thiobarbituric acid method. Lipolysis was measured as glycerol release. Lipid synthesis was measured as 14C-glucose incorporated into lipid. Respiration was assessed using the SeaHorse XF24 analyzer and the proton leak was determined from the difference in respiration with oligomycin and antimycin A.ResultsMetabolites with increasing oxidation potentials (GSSG, CySS, Acoc) increased adipocyte ROS. In contrast, P caused a decrease in ROS compared with L. Acoc also induced a significant increase in both LPO and lipid synthesis. L and Acoc increased lipolysis. βOHB increased respiration, mainly due to an increased proton leak. GSSG, when present throughout 14 days of differentiation significantly increased fat accumulation, but not when added later.ConclusionsWe demonstrated that in human adipocytes changes in the external redox state impacted ROS production, LPO, energy efficiency, lipid handling, and differentiation. A more oxidized state generally led to increased ROS, LPO and lipid turnover and more reduction led to increased respiration and a proton leak. However, not all of the redox couples were the same suggesting compartmentalization. These data are consistent with the concept of the circulating redox metabolome as a master metabolic regulatory system.
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) were introduced into Laurel River Lake as 4‐in fish in 1974 and as 8‐10 in fish each year thereafter. Studies were initiated in 1975 to evaluate the success of these stockings. Trout preferred 54‐61 F water temperatures during the summer months and this preference influenced their depth distribution in June‐October. The mean monthly growth rate of trout was 0.56 in and 0.10 lb in 1977; 0.78 in and 0.20 lb in 1978. The trout fishery steadily improved during 1977‐1979. Trout harvest in 1979 was 2.5 lb per acre, a 73% addition to the fish yield. The recovery rate, by weight of trout stocked, was 63%. The night fishery during the summer months contributed to most of the trout harvest. The mean size of trout creeled at night in 1978 was 14.0 in and 0.93 lb, compared to a size of 9.9 in and 0.33 lb when stocked. Recommendations were to (1) stock rainbow trout annually in February at a mean length of at least 9 in; (2) include Craigs Creek boat ramp as a stocking site; (3) evaluate the success of stocking larger numbers of trout, if available; (4) inform anglers of the preference for 54‐61 F water temperatures by trout in order to improve success at locating and catching trout in late summer.
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