Activation of microglia and inflammation-mediated neurotoxicity are suggested to play a decisive role in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders. Activated microglia release pro-inflammatory factors that may be neurotoxic. Here we show that the orderly activation of caspase-8 and caspase-3/7, known executioners of apoptotic cell death, regulate microglia activation through a protein kinase C (PKC)-δ-dependent pathway. We find that stimulation of microglia with various inflammogens activates caspase-8 and caspase-3/7 in microglia without triggering cell death in vitro and in vivo. Knockdown or chemical inhibition of each of these caspases hindered microglia activation and consequently reduced neurotoxicity. We observe that these caspases are activated in microglia in the ventral mesencephalon of Parkinson's disease (PD) and the frontal cortex of individuals with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Taken together, we show that caspase-8 and caspase-3/7 are involved in regulating microglia activation. We conclude that inhibition of these caspases could be neuroprotective by targeting the microglia rather than the neurons themselves.

Inflammatory response induced by microglia plays a critical role in the demise of neuronal populations in neuroinflammatory diseases. Although the role of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) in microglia's inflammatory response is fully acknowledged, little is known about endogenous ligands that trigger TLR4 activation. Here, we report that galectin-3 (Gal3) released by microglia acts as an endogenous paracrine TLR4 ligand. Gal3-TLR4 interaction was further confirmed in a murine neuroinflammatory model (intranigral lipopolysaccharide [LPS] injection) and in human stroke subjects. Depletion of Gal3 exerted neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects following global brain ischemia and in the neuroinflammatory LPS model. These results suggest that Gal3-dependent-TLR4 activation could contribute to sustained microglia activation, prolonging the inflammatory response in the brain.

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The aims of the present study were to design an easy and sensitive DNA amplification method for detection of Toxuplasrna gondii with low risk of accidental contamination, and to find a rapid method for purification of clinical samples containing potential inhibitors of the amplification reaction. With a pair of primers amplifying a 619-bp fragment of the B1 gene of this parasite it was possible to detect DNA equivalent to 10 parasites. When a third primer was added to the same tube, sensitivity increased to 0.1 parasite. In a comparison of different DNA purification methods, the High Pure PCR Template Preparation Kit (Boehringer Mannheim, Germany) gave the best results. With this purification method and the one-tube hemi-nested PCR, T. gondii DNA was detected in 14 (87.5%) of 16 clinical specimens (amniotic fluid, broncho-alveolar lavage, bone marrow, blood, liver biopsy) in which the parasite was demonstrated by cell culture.

Early diagnosis of tuberculosis and screening of other mycobacteria is required for the appropriate management of patients. We have therefore developed a 5-exonuclease fluorogenic PCR assay in a single-tube balanced heminested format that simultaneously detects Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC) and members of the Mycobacterium genus (MYC) using the 16S ribosomal DNA target directly on clinical samples. One hundred twenty-seven clinical samples (65 smear negative and 62 smear positive) with a positive culture result from 127 patients were tested, including 40 negative control specimens. The finding of both a positive MTC and probe value and a positive MYC probe value confirmed the presence of MTC or mycobacteria with a 100% positive predictive value. However, a negative value for MTC or MYC did not discount the presence of mycobacteria in the specimen. Interestingly, the addition of the MYC probe allowed the diagnosis of an additional 7% of patients with tuberculosis and rapid screening of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). Thus, over 75% of the patients were diagnosed with mycobacterial disease by PCR. The sensitivity was much higher on smearpositive samples (90.3%) than smear-negative samples (49.2%) and was slightly higher for MTC than NTM samples. With regard to the origin of the sample, MTC pulmonary samples gave better results than others. In conclusion, we believe this test may be useful for the rapid detection of mycobacteria in clinical samples and may be a valuable tool when used together with conventional methods and the clinical data available.

We propose a biochemical mechanism for celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity that may rationalize many of the extradigestive disorders not explained by the current immunogenetic model. Our hypothesis is based on the homology between the 33-mer gliadin peptide and a component of the NMDA glutamate receptor ion channel - the human GRINA protein - using BLASTP software. Based on this homology the 33-mer may act as a natural antagonist interfering with the normal interactions of GRINA and its partners. The theory is supported by numerous independent data from the literature, and provides a mechanistic link with otherwise unrelated disorders, such as cleft lip and palate, thyroid dysfunction, restless legs syndrome, depression, ataxia, hearing loss, fibromyalgia, dermatitis herpetiformis, schizophrenia, toxoplasmosis, anemia, osteopenia, Fabry disease, Barret's adenocarcinoma, neuroblastoma, urinary incontinence, recurrent miscarriage, cardiac anomalies, reduced risk of breast cancer, stiff person syndrome, etc. The hypothesis also anticipates better animal models, and has the potential to open new avenues of research.

The Glutamate Receptor Ionotropic NMDA-Associated Protein 1 (GRINA) belongs to the Lifeguard family and is involved in calcium homeostasis, which governs key processes, such as cell survival or the release of neurotransmitters. GRINA is mainly associated with membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, endosome, and the cell surface, but its presence in the nucleus has not been explained yet. Here we dissect, with the help of different software tools, the potential roles of GRINA in the cell and how they may be altered in diseases, such as schizophrenia or celiac disease. We describe for the first time that the cytoplasmic N-terminal half of GRINA (which spans a Proline-rich domain) contains a potential DNA-binding sequence, in addition to cleavage target sites and probable PY-nuclear localization sequences, that may enable it to be released from the rest of the protein and enter the nucleus under suitable conditions, where it could participate in the transcription, alternative splicing, and mRNA export of a subset of genes likely involved in lipid and sterol synthesis, ribosome biogenesis, or cell cycle progression. To support these findings, we include additional evidence based on an exhaustive review of the literature and our preliminary data of the protein–protein interaction network of GRINA.

This work presents a new bioprocess process for the extraction of bioactive components from soy pulp by-product (okara) using an enzymatic technology that was compared to a conventional water extraction. Okara is rich in fiber, fat, protein, and bioactive compounds such as isoflavones but its low solubility hampers the use in food and fertilizer industry. After the enzymatic attack with endoproteases half of the original insoluble proteins were converted into soluble peptides. Linked to this process occured the solubilization of isoflavones trapped in the insoluble protein matrix. We were able to extract up to 62.5% of the total isoflavones content, specially aglycones, the more bioactive isoflavone forms, whose values rose 9.12 times. This was probably due to the increased solubilization and interconversion from the original isoflavones. In conclusion, our process resulted in the formulation of a new functional product rich in aglycones and bioactive peptides with higher antioxidant potency than the original source. Therefore, we propose that the enzymatic extraction of okara bioactive compounds is an advantageous tool to replace conventional extraction.