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In Drosophila melanogaster, the endogenous retrovirus gypsy is repressed by the functional alleles (restrictive) of an as-yet-uncloned heterochromatic gene called flamenco. Using gypsy-lacZ transcriptional fusions, we show here that this repression takes place not only in the follicle cells of restrictive ovaries, as was previously observed, but also in restrictive larval female gonads. Analyses of the role of gypsy cis-regulatory sequences in the control of gypsy expression are also presented. They rule out the hypothesis that gypsy would contain a single binding region for a putative Flamenco repressor. Indeed, the ovarian expression of a chimeric yp3-lacZ construct was shown to become sensitive to the Flamenco regulation when any of three different 5Ј-UTR gypsy sequences (ranging from 59 to 647 nucleotides) was incorporated into the heterologous yp3-lacZ transcript. The piwi mutation, which is known to affect RNA-mediated homologydependent transgene silencing, was also shown to impede the repression of gypsy in restrictive female gonads. Finally, a RNA-silencing model is also supported by the finding in ovaries of short RNAs (25-27 nucleotides long) homologous to sequences from within the gypsy 5Ј-UTR.

Retroviruses are commonly considered to be restricted to vertebrates. However, the genome of many eukaryotes contains mobile sequences known as retrotransposons with long terminal repeats (LTR retrotransposons) or viral retrotransposons, showing similarities with integrated proviruses of retroviruses, such as Ty elements in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, copia-like elements in Drosophila, and endogenous proviruses in vertebrates. The gypsy element of Drosophila melanogaster has LTRs and contains three open reading frames, one of which encodes potential products similar to gag-specific protease, reverse transcriptase, and endonuclease. It is more similar to typical retroviruses than to LTR retrotransposons. We report here experiments showing that gypsy can be transmitted by microinjecting egg plasma from embryos of a strain containing actively transposing gypsy elements into embryos of a strain originally devoid of transposing elements. Horizontal transfer is also observed when individuals of the "empty" stock are raised on medium containing ground pupae of the stock possessing transposing elements. These results suggest that gypsy is an infectious retrovirus and provide evidence that retroviruses also occur in invertebrates.

Gypsy displays striking similarities to vertebrate retroviruses, including the presence of a yet uncharacterized additional open reading frame (ORF3) and the recent evidence for infectivity. It is mobilized with high frequency in the germline of the progeny of females homozygous for the flamenco permissive mutation. We report the characterization of a gypsy subgenomic ORF3 RNA encoding typical retroviral envelope proteins. In females, env expression is strongly repressed by one copy of the non‐permissive allele of flamenco. A less dramatic reduction in the accumulation of other transcripts and retrotranscripts is also observed. These effects correlate well with the inhibition of gypsy transposition in the progeny of these females, and are therefore likely to be responsible for this phenomenon. The effects of flamenco on gypsy expression are apparently restricted to the somatic follicle cells that surround the maternal germline. Moreover, permissive follicle cells display a typically polarized distribution of gypsy RNAs and envelope proteins, both being mainly accumulated at the apical pole, close to the oocyte. We propose a model suggesting that gypsy germinal transposition might occur only in individuals that have maternally inherited enveloped gypsy particles due to infection of the maternal germline by the soma.

Germline silencing of transposable elements is essential for the maintenance of genome integrity. Recent results indicate that this repression is largely achieved through a RNA silencing pathway that involves Piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs). However the repressive mechanisms are not well understood. To address this question, we used the possibility to disrupt the repression of the Drosophila I element retrotransposon by hybrid dysgenesis. We show here that the repression of the functional I elements that are located in euchromatin requires proteins of the piRNA pathway, and that the amount of ovarian I element piRNAs correlates with the strength of the repression in the female germline. Antisense RNAs, which are likely used to produce antisense piRNAs, are transcribed by heterochromatic defective I elements, but efficient production of these antisense small RNAs requires the presence in the genome of euchromatic functional I elements. Finally, we demonstrate that the piRNA-induced silencing of the functional I elements is at least partially posttranscriptional. In a repressive background, these elements are still transcribed, but some of their sense transcripts are kept in nurse cell nuclear foci together with those of the Doc retrotransposon. In the absence of I element piRNAs, either in dysgenic females or in mutants of the piRNA silencing pathway, sense I element transcripts are transported toward the oocyte where retrotransposition occurs. Our results indicate that piRNAs are involved in a posttranscriptional gene-silencing mechanism resulting in RNA nuclear accumulation.hybrid dysgenesis ͉ I element ͉ RNA silencing

The maintenance of genome integrity is an essential trait to the successful transmission of genetic information. In animal germ cells, piRNAs guide PIWI proteins to silence transposable elements (TEs) in order to maintain genome integrity. In insects, most TE silencing in the germline is achieved by secondary piRNAs that are produced by a feed-forward loop (the pingpong cycle), which requires the piRNA-directed cleavage of two types of RNAs: mRNAs of functional euchromatic TEs and heterochromatic transcripts that contain defective TE sequences. The first cleavage that initiates such an amplification loop remains poorly understood. Taking advantage of the existence of strains that are devoid of functional copies of the LINE-like I-element, we report here that in such Drosophila ovaries, the initiation of a ping-pong cycle is exclusively achieved by secondary I-element piRNAs that are produced in the ovary and deposited in the embryonic germline. This unusual secondary piRNA biogenesis, detected in the absence of functional I-element copies, results from the processing of sense and antisense transcripts of several different defective I-element. Once acquired, for instance after ancestor aging, this capacity to produce heterochromatic-only secondary piRNAs is partially transmitted through generations via maternal piRNAs. Furthermore, such piRNAs acting as ping-pong initiators in a chromatin-independent manner confer to the progeny a high capacity to repress the I-element mobility. Our study explains, at the molecular level, the basis for epigenetic memory of maternal immunity that protects females from hybrid dysgenesis caused by transposition of paternally inherited functional I-element.

Replication of the gypsy endogenous retrovirus involves contamination of the female germ line by adjacent somatic tissues. This is prevented by flam, an as-yet-uncloned heterochromatic pericentromeric locus, at the level of transcript accumulation in these somatic ovarian tissues. We tested the effect of a presumptive RNA silencing mechanism on the accumulation of RNAs produced by constructs containing various gypsy sequences and report that the efficiency of silencing is indeed correlated with the amount of complementary RNAs, 25 to 30 nucleotides in length, in the ovary. For instance, while these RNAs were found to display a three-to fivefold excess of the antisense strands, only the transcripts that contain the complementary sense gypsy sequences could be repressed, indicating that they are targeted at the RNA, not DNA, level. Their size and asymmetry in strand polarity are typical of the novel repeat-associated small interfering RNA (rasiRNA)-mediated pathway, recently suspected to prevent the deleterious expression of selfish DNA specifically in the germ line. Unlike microRNAs (but like rasiRNAs and, surprisingly, siRNAs as well), gypsy rasiRNAs are modified at the 3 end. The rasiRNA-associated protein Piwi (but not Aub) is required for gypsy silencing, whereas Dicer-2 (which makes siRNAs) is not. In contrast, piwi, aub, and flam do not appear to affect somatic siRNA-mediated silencing. The amount of gypsy rasiRNAs is genetically determined by the flam locus in a provirus copy number-independent manner and is triggered in the somatic tissues by some pericentromeric provirus(es), which are thereby able to protect the germ line from retroviral invasion.RNA interference (RNAi) is a common reverse-genetics method that can be used to silence genes in most eukaryotes and involves the introduction of double-stranded RNA molecules (dsRNA) that are complementary to the targeted genic sequences (16). This technique takes advantage of well-conserved, natural RNA silencing mechanisms in which RNase III endonucleases (8) cleave dsRNAs into 21-nucleotide (nt) small RNAs, called small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). siRNAs interact with proteins of the Argonaute family to confer sequence specificity to the silencing complex (55).Various naturally occurring siRNA-like molecules have been described in eukaryotes. These include (i) animal microRNAs (miRNAs), the sequences of which can be conserved from worms to humans (29, 40); (ii) scanRNAs in Tetrahymena thermophila (36) and centromeric repeat-originating siRNAs in Schizosaccharomyces pombe (45); and (iii) siRNAs produced by viruses in plants (20), transposons in Caenorhabditis elegans (56) and transposons in protozoa (14, 61). The silencing abilities of these natural small RNAs are involved in diverse biological processes, such as (i) the regulation of gene expression by translational inhibition (2), (ii) genome organization and chromosome structure mediated by chromatin modification (60, 65), and (iii) defense against viruses and invasive repeated DNAs (64). Several possible ...