Nuclear all-trans retinoic acid receptors (RARs) initiate early transcriptional events which engage pluripotent cells to differentiate into specific lineages. RAR-controlled transactivation depends mostly on agonist-induced structural transitions in RAR C-terminus (AF-2), thus bridging coactivators or corepressors to chromatin, hence controlling preinitiation complex assembly. However, the contribution of other domains of RAR to its overall transcriptional activity remains poorly defined. A proteomic characterization of nuclear proteins interacting with RAR regions distinct from the AF-2 revealed unsuspected functional properties of the RAR N-terminus. Indeed, mass spectrometry fingerprinting identified the Bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4) and ALL1-fused gene from chromosome 9 (AF9/MLLT3), known to associate with and regulates the activity of Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b (P-TEFb), as novel RAR coactivators. In addition to promoter sequences, RAR binds to genomic, transcribed regions of retinoid-regulated genes, in association with RNA polymerase II and as a function of P-TEFb activity. Knockdown of either AF9 or BRD4 expression affected differentially the neural differentiation of stem cell-like P19 cells. Clusters of retinoid-regulated genes were selectively dependent on BRD4 and/or AF9 expression, which correlated with RAR association to transcribed regions. Thus RAR establishes physical and functional links with components of the elongation complex, enabling the rapid retinoid-induced induction of genes required for neuronal differentiation. Our data thereby extends the previously known RAR interactome from classical transcriptional modulators to components of the elongation machinery, and unravel a functional role of RAR in transcriptional elongation.
Lactococci inoculated into cheese grow as colonies producing lactic acid. The pH microgradients were investigated around colonies in a complex food such as cheese. The results, obtained using a nondestructive technique, demonstrated that pH microgradients did not occur regardless of the acidification kinetics and the size of the colony. Lactic acid bacteria are used as starters in cheese manufacture. They are immobilized within the cheese curd during the coagulation step regardless of the cheese-making process. Immobilized cells then grow as colonies (1), producing lactic acid within the cheese matrix. The hypothesis of an accumulation of lactic acid around bacterial colonies has been formulated as a consequence of mass transfer limitations from the colony (2, 3), lowering the pH on the edge of the colony. Since low pH is known to modify the metabolic activity of lactic acid bacteria (4, 5) and to have even more influence when cells are immobilized (5), it is important to determine whether or not, in solid and complex foods such as cheese, the local pH around colonies differed from the "global" pH usually measured. Microgradients of pH occur in gelatin media around large colonies of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (diameters from 450 m to 2.5 mm) (3, 6) and Lactobacillus curvatus (diameters from 380 m to 430 m) but do not occur around L. curvatus colonies with a diameter of 155 m (7). These results, obtained in gelatin medium, cannot be applied to cheese since the diffusion coefficients have been shown to depend on the microstructure (8).Different techniques have been used to monitor pH in and around bacterial colonies. Microelectrodes were first used to measure pH in and around submerged colonies of S. Typhimurium (3). Later, a nondestructive technique based on fluorescence microscopy was developed to describe the pH microgradient around colonies of L. curvatus (7). More recently, the pH-sensitive fluoroprobe, C-SNARF-4F, has been applied to measure the pH within biofilms using a ratiometric correlation to pH (9). Our final aim is to explore the pH microenvironment around bacterial colonies in a complex and solid food such as cheese. Our strategy, in this first study, was to use a nonfat model cheese which was a reproducible and homogeneous cheese matrix directly molded in imaging chambers for nondestructive microscopic examination. As we previously demonstrated that the size of colonies depends on the inoculation level in cheese (10), the model cheeses were inoculated at three different levels with Lactococcus lactis, generating three different sizes of colonies. Bigger colonies (lower inoculation levels) than in traditional cheeses were generated in order to enhance the phenomenon of lactic acid accumulation. We monitored the pH both at the macroscopic scale, so called here macropH, and at the microscopic scale, so called here micro-pH, using a nondestructive microscopic examination.Monitoring macro-pH and micro-pH in model cheeses. Model cheeses were made from ultrafiltrated (UF) milk retentate both ...
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