Wireless sensor networks form the crux of a wide range of automated applications that are gaining popularity with every passing day. The journey of wireless sensor networks has seen simple sensory monitoring to sensing-processing-actuation based end-to-end applications to the design and deployment of highly sophisticated service-oriented use cases. This highly disruptive field has seen rapid transformations to gain insights and assess the relative merits. Demerits of competing design strategies, it very important to know the evolutionary milestones this technology has undergone in achieving the state-of-the-art in this area. In this article, a systematic review is carried out that captures the evolution of architectural designs and developments in wireless sensor network–based applications. This review delves into the relative pros and cons of various epochs in developments and delineates the future areas of research in wireless sensor network design paradigm.
Nowadays, smart applications are increasing day by day to improve the standard of living in smart cities. A modern-day smart city is characterized by the presence of numerous smart Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-enabled services such as automated healthcare, automatic building monitoring, home automation, smart parking, traffic management, data security, among others. Such cities employ multitudes of Internet of Things (IoT) devices to collect and share data between trusted users by means of a centralized intermediary for monitoring and control of the myriad automatic activities. However, a centralized intermediary is plagued by issues such as single point of failure, risk of data loss, man-in-the-middle attack, and so forth. Blockchain-based smart contracts for automated control in smart cities provide a decentralized and secure alternative. In this paper, an Ethereum based system design for decentralized applications in smart cities has been proposed that enables systems to share data without an intermediary between trusted and non-trusted stakeholders using Ethereum based self-executing contracts. Such contracts allow automated multi-step workflows for smart applications. Two use cases, have been considered namely smart healthcare and smart building monitoring, as proof of stake of the proposed Ethereum based contract. The performance of the proposed scheme for these use cases has been presented with Keccack 256 transaction hash, the total number of transactions, gas consumed by each contract. Such an attempt is a worthwhile addition to state of the art as evident from the results presented herein. The modeling simulation and analysis of hashing power shows that for hashing power greater than 55% the probability of double spending attack reaches to 42% maximum. So it is concluded that the probability of double spending increases with the increase of transaction values.
With the electric power grid experiencing a rapid shift to the smart grid paradigm over a deregulated energy market, Internet of Things (IoT) based solutions are gaining prominence and innovative Peer To Peer (P2P) energy trading at micro-level are being deployed. Such advancement, however leave traditional security models vulnerable and pave the path for Blockchain, an Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) with its decentralized, open and transparency characteristics as a viable alternative. However, due to deregulation in energy trading markets, massive volumes of micro transactions are required to be supported, which become a performance bottleneck with existing Blockchain solution such as Hyperledger, Ethereum and so on. In this paper, a lightweight ’Tangle’ based framework, namely IOTA (Third generation DLT) is employed for designing an energy trading market that uses Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) based solution that not only alleviates the reward overhead for micro-transactions but also provides scalability, quantum-proof, and high throughput of such transactions at low confirmation latency. Furthermore the Masked Authentication Messaging (MAM) protocol is used over the IOTA P2P energy trading framework that allows energy producer and consumer to share the data while maintaining the confidentiality, and facilitates the data accessibility. The Raspberry Pi 3 board along with voltage sensor (INA219) used for the setting up light node and publishing and fetching data from the Tangle. The results of the obtained benchmarking indicate low confirmation latency, high throughput, system with Hyperledger Fabric and Ethereum. Moreover, the effect of transaction rate decreases when the IOTA bundle size increases more than 10. For bundle size 5 and 10 it behaves absolutely better than any other platform. The speedy confirmation time of transactions in IOTA, is most suitable for peer to peer energy trading scenarios. This study serves as a guideline for deploying, end-to-end transaction with IOTA Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) and improving the performance of Blockchain in the energy sector under various operating conditions.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.