Surface-associated bacterial communities called biofilms are ubiquitous in nature. Biofilms are detrimental in medical settings due to their high tolerance to antibiotics and may alter the final pathophysiological outcome of many healthcare-related infections. Several innovative prophylactic and therapeutic strategies targeting specific mechanisms and/or pathways have been discovered and exploited in the clinic. One such emerging and original approach to dealing with biofilms is the use of human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), which are the third most abundant solid component in human milk after lactose and lipids. HMOs are safe to consume (GRAS status) and act as prebiotics by inducing the growth and colonization of gut microbiota, in addition to strengthening the intestinal epithelial barrier, thereby protecting from pathogens. Moreover, HMOs can disrupt biofilm formation and inhibit the growth of specific microbes. In the present review, we summarize the potential of HMOs as antibacterial and antibiofilm agents and, hence, propose further investigations on using HMOs for new-age therapeutic interventions.
Immunomodulators are substances that either enhance or suppress the immunity of the host. Immunomodulators have been used for ages in Ayurvedic Medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine. In the surge of modern medicine, many chemically derived substances are used as immunomodulators. Historically, plants present a rich source of these therapeutic agents. Researchers have used these lead structures for exploring the underlying mechanisms of immunomodulation so that newer, safer agents can be designed and used clinically. Microbial sources have also been tried in search of immunomodulators. Chemically, these are a diverse group of substances that act on varied signaling pathways to cause immunomodulation. The involvement of the immune system in many diseases and disorders makes these agents essential in the treatment of these diseases, e.g., cancer. This chapter discusses the chemistry of a selected few commonly known plant-derived immunomodulators along with their biological evaluation methods and provides a broad overview of their therapeutic potential with particular emphasis on the mechanism of immunomodulation.
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