The photocatalytic water splitting technique is a promising alternative to produce hydrogen using a facile and proficient method. In the current Review, recent progress made in photocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) using 2D nanomaterials (NMs) and composite heterostructures is described. The strong in-plane chemical bonds along with weak van der Waals interaction make these materials lucrative for surface-related applications. State-of-the-art protocols designed for the synthesis of 2D NMs is discussed in detail. The Review illustrates density functional theory (DFT)-based studies against the new set of 2D NMs, which also highlights the importance of structural defects and doping in the electronic structure. Additionally, the Review describes the influence of electronic, structural, and surface manipulation strategies. These impact the electronic structures, intrinsic conductivity, and finally output toward HER. Moreover, this Review also provides a fresh perspective on the prospects and challenges existing behind the application and fabrication strategies.
Growth in production of manufactured
goods and the use of nanomaterials
in consumer products has mounted in the past few decades. Nanotoxicology
or toxicity assessment of these engineered products is required to
understand possible adverse effects and their fate inside the human
body. The present review is a one stop assessment intended to be a
state of the art understanding on nanotoxicity. It provides a summation
of the various kinds of cell death and also discusses the different
types of toxicities along with their studies. The review discusses
the physiological impact imparted on cells (reactive oxygen species
generation and the resultant oxidative stress, inflammation, and other
nonoxidant pathways). Moreover, it discusses the different physicochemical
properties of nanomaterials (size, morphology, surface charge, and
coating) governing the cytotoxicity properties. It also details the
major pathways of nanomaterial uptake in cells and their outcome.
Additionally, it also discusses the possible methods for human exposure
to nanomaterials (skin, respiratory tract, gastrointestinal tract,
blood brain barrier, liver, and spleen). Furthermore, an entire new
section is contributed in discussion of all possible types of assays
(cytotoxicity, cell proliferation, and genotoxicity assays). A summarized
discussion of the recent advances on in vitro, in silico, and in vivo
studies of nanomaterials (metal, metal oxides, carbon nanotubes, graphene,
and other novel materials) is made. The review also provides a brief
account of the safety guidelines for handling nanomaterials. Finally,
the uses of engineered nanomaterials in commercial products are discussed
in detail.
Fibrin is a natural biopolymer involved in the coagulation cascade. It acts as a reservoir for growth factors, cells, and enzymes during wound healing and provides a scaffold for the synthesis of extracellular matrix. Thus, the use of fibrin has expanded in recent years from traditional use as a sealant for surgical applications, to a tissue engineering scaffold capable of providing nature's cues for tissue regeneration. This paper reviews the advantageous biological aspects of fibrin, the history of the scaffold material, and its present role in the delivery of drugs, growth factors, cells, and gene vectors. Examples are given of studies where the structure and form of the scaffold have been manipulated for optimal release of the therapeutic agent, optimal cellular activity, and investigation into stem cell differentiation. It is evident from the body of literature presented that the benefits of fibrin are being exploited for a vast range of tissue engineering applications and that fibrin remains a key scaffold material for the delivery of drugs and biomolecules.
One of the major limitations of adenovirus as an efficient gene delivery vehicle is its transient nature of transgene expression. At present, no biodegradable release system exists that permits the sustained release of gene delivery. This study aimed to optimize a biodegradable fibrin scaffold for sustained adenoviral mediated gene delivery. Scaffold formulations were fabricated incorporating an adenoviral vector encoding beta-galactosidase, and each scaffold was incubated in elution fluid. The level of transfection of cells was measured to assess virus diffusion from each scaffold at different time periods. Results showed that viral particles were present in the elution fluid and had the ability to transfect cells at different time points. Depending on the scaffold formulation, variable rates of diffusion were seen. Analysis of scaffold microarchitecture using stereo pairs showed that variable pore depth is seen in different fibrin scaffold concentration, which may be a determining factor in the diffusion rate. It was concluded that sustained release of the adenovirus could be attained up to 192 h at the optimal concentration of 60 mg/mL fibrinogen and 4 IU thrombin.
scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.