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BackgroundA hallmark feature of Parkinson's disease (PD) is the build‐up of α‐synuclein protein aggregates throughout the brain; however α‐synuclein is also expressed in enteric neurons. Gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and pathology are frequently reported in PD, including constipation, increased intestinal permeability, glial pathology, and alterations to gut microbiota composition. α‐synuclein can propagate through neuronal systems but the site of origin of α‐synuclein pathology, whether it be the gut or the brain, is still unknown. Physical exercise is associated with alleviating symptoms of PD and with altering the composition of the gut microbiota.MethodsThis study investigated the effects of bilateral nigral injection of adeno‐associated virus (AAV)‐α‐synuclein on enteric neurons, glia and neurochemistry, the gut microbiome, and bile acid metabolism in rats, some of whom were exposed to voluntary exercise.Key ResultsNigral overexpression of α‐synuclein resulted in significant neuronal loss in the ileal submucosal plexus with no change in enteric glia. In contrast, the myenteric plexus showed a significant increase in glial expression, while neuronal numbers were maintained. Concomitant alterations were observed in the gut microbiome and related bile acid metabolism. Voluntary running protected against neuronal loss, increased enteric glial expression, and modified gut microbiome composition in the brain‐injected AAV‐α‐synuclein PD model.Conclusions and InferencesThese results show that developing nigral α‐synuclein pathology in this PD model exerts significant alterations on the enteric nervous system (ENS) and gut microbiome that are receptive to modification by exercise. This highlights brain to gut communication as an important mechanism in PD pathology.

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Transplantation of embryonic dopaminergic neurones has shown promise for the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD), but this approach is limited by the poor survival of the transplanted cells. Exogenous dopaminergic neurotrophic factors such as growth/differentiation factor 5 (GDF5) have been found to enhance the survival of transplanted dopaminergic neurones. However, this approach is limited by the rapid degradation of such factors in vivo; thus, methods for long-term delivery of these factors are under investigation. The present study shows, using optimised lipid-mediated transfection procedures, that overexpression of GDF5 significantly improves the survival of dopaminergic neurones in cultures of embryonic day (E) 13 rat ventral mesencephalon (VM) and protects them against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced toxicity. In another experiment, E13 VM cells were transfected with GDF5 after 1 day in vitro (DIV), then transplanted into 6-OHDA-lesioned adult rat striata after 2 DIV. The survival of these E13 VM dopaminergic neurones after transfection and transplantation was as least as high as that of freshly dissected E14 VM dopaminergic neurones, demonstrating that transfection was not detrimental to these cells. Furthermore, GDF5-overexpressing E13 VM transplants significantly reduced amphetamine-induced rotational asymmetry in the lesioned rats. This study shows that lipid-mediated transfection in vitro prior to transplantation is a valid approach for the introduction of neurotrophic proteins such as GDF5, as well as lending further support to the potential use of GDF5 in neuroprotective therapy for PD.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, and is characterized by the progressive degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic (DA) neurons. Current PD treatments are symptomatic, wear off over time, and do not protect against DA neuronal loss. Finding a way to re-grow mDA neurons is a promising disease-modifying therapeutic strategy for PD. However, reliable biomarkers are required to allow such growth-promoting approaches to be applied early in the disease progression. MicroRNA-181a has been shown to be dysregulated in PD patients, and has been identified as a potential biomarker for PD. Despite studies demonstrating the enrichment of miR-181a in the brain, but more specifically in neurites of postmitotic neurons, the role of miR-181a in mDA neurons remained unknown. Herein, we used cell culture models of human mDA neurons to investigate a potential role for miR-181a in mDA neurons. We used a bioninformatics analysis to identify that miR-181a targets components of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signalling pathway, including the transcription factors Smad1 and Smad5, which we find are expressed by rat mDA neurons and are required for BMP-induced neurite growth. We also found that inhibition of neuronal miR-181a, resulted in increased Smad signalling, and induced neurite growth in SH-SY5Y cells. Finally, using embryonic rat cultures, we demonstrated that miR-181a inhibition induces ventral midbrain and cortical neuronal growth. These data describe a new role for miR-181a in mDA neurons, and provide proof-of principle that miR-181a dysresgulation in PD may alter the activation state on signalling pathways important for neuronal growth. KeywordsMicroRNA-181a, midbrain neurons, neurite growth, bone morphogenetic protein, Smad signalling.

Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is the most frequent cause of acquired infant brain injury. Early, clinically relevant biomarkers are required to allow timely application of therapeutic interventions. We previously reported early alterations in several microRNAs (miRNA) in umbilical cord blood at birth in infants with HIE. However, the exact timing of these alterations is unknown. Here, we report serial changes in six circulating, cross-species/bridging biomarkers in a clinically relevant porcine model of neonatal HIE with functional analysis. Six miRNAs—miR-374a, miR-181b, miR-181a, miR-151a, miR-148a and miR-128—were significantly and rapidly upregulated 1-h post-HI. Changes in miR-374a, miR-181b and miR-181a appeared specific to moderate-severe HI. Histopathological injury and five miRNAs displayed positive correlations and were predictive of MRS Lac/Cr ratios. Bioinformatic analysis identified that components of the bone morphogenic protein (BMP) family may be targets of miR-181a. Inhibition of miR-181a increased neurite length in both SH-SY5Y cells at 1 DIV (days in vitro) and in primary cultures of rat neuronal midbrain at 3 DIV. In agreement, inhibition of miR-181a increased expression of BMPR2 in differentiating SH-SY5Y cells. These miRNAs may therefore act as early biomarkers of HIE, thereby allowing for rapid diagnosis and timely therapeutic intervention and may regulate expression of signalling pathways vital to neuronal survival. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s12035-020-02018-w) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Parkinson’s disease is characterized by the intracellular accumulation of α-synuclein which has been linked to early dopaminergic axonal degeneration. Identifying druggable targets that can promote axonal growth in cells overexpressing α-synuclein is important in order to develop strategies for early intervention. Class-IIa histone deacetylases (HDACs) have previously emerged as druggable targets, however, it is not known which specific class-IIa HDACs should be targeted to promote neurite growth in dopaminergic neurons. To provide insight into this, we used gene co-expression analysis to identify which, if any, of the class-IIa HDACs had a positive correlation with markers of dopaminergic neurons in the human substantia nigra. This revealed that two histone deacetylases, HDAC5 and HDAC9, are co-expressed with TH, GIRK2 and ALDH1A1 in the human SN. We further found that HDAC5 and HDAC9 are expressed in dopaminergic neurons in the adult mouse substantia nigra. We show that siRNAs targeting HDAC5 or HDAC9 can promote neurite growth in SH-SY5Y cells, and that their pharmacological inhibition, using the drug MC1568, promoted neurite growth in cultured rat dopaminergic neurons. Moreover, MC1568 treatment upregulated the expression of the neurotrophic factor, BMP2, and its downstream transcription factor, SMAD1. In addition, MC1568 or siRNAs targeting HDAC5 or HDAC9 led to an increase in Smad-dependent GFP expression in a reporter assay. Furthermore, MC1568 treatment of cultured rat dopaminergic neurons increased cellular levels of phosphorylated Smad1, which was prevented by the BMP receptor inhibitor, dorsomorphin. Dorsomorphin treatment prevented the neurite growth-promoting effects of siRNAs targeting HDAC5, as did overexpression of dominant-negative Smad4 or of the inhibitory Smad7, demonstrating a functional link to BMP signaling. Supplementation with BMP2 prevented the neurite growth-inhibitory effects of nuclear-restricted HDAC5. Finally, we report that siRNAs targeting HDAC5 or HDAC9 promoted neurite growth in cells overexpressing wild-type or A53T-α-synuclein and that MC1568 protected cultured rat dopaminergic neurons against the neurotoxin, MPP+. These findings establish HDAC5 and HDAC9 as novel regulators of BMP-Smad signaling, that additionally may be therapeutic targets worthy of further exploration in iPSC-derived human DA neurons and in vivo models of Parkinson’s disease.

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