The development of environmental microsensor techniques is a revolutionary advance in the measurement of both absolute levels and changes in chemical species in the field of environmental engineered and natural systems. The tiny tip (5-15 μm diameter) of microsensors makes them very attractive experimental tools for direct measurements of the chemical species of interest inside biological samples (e.g., biofilm, flocs). Microelectrodes fabricated from pulled micropipettes (e.g., dissolved oxygen, oxidation-reduction potential, ion-selective microelectrode) have contributed to greater understanding of biological mechanisms for decades using microscopic monitoring, and currently microelectromechanical system (MEMS) microfabrication technologies are being successfully applied to fabricate multi-analyte sensor systems for in situ monitoring. This review focuses on needle-type environmental microsensor technology, including microelectrodes and multi-analyte MEMS sensor arrays. Design, construction and applications to biofilm research of these sensors are described. Practical methods for biofilm microprofile measurements are presented and several in situ applications for a biofilm study are highlighted. Ultimately, the developed needle-type microsensors combined with molecular biotechnology (such as microscopic observation with fluorescent probes) show the tremendous promise of micro-environmental sensor technology.

Biofilms are considered a significant health risk in the food and dairy industries because they can harbor pathogens, and direct contact with them can lead to food contamination. Biofilm control is often performed using strong oxidizing agents like chlorine and peracetic acid. Although chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is being used increasingly to control microbiological growth in a number of different industries, not much is known about disinfection in biofilms using chlorine dioxide. In this study, a microelectrode originally made for chlorine detection was modified to measure the profiles of chlorine dioxide in biofilm as a function of depth into the biofilm. In addition, discarded microelectrodes proved useful for in situ direct measurement of biofilm thicknesses. The chlorine dioxide microelectrode had a linear response when calibrated up to a ClO2 concentration of 0.4 mM. ClO2 profiles showed depletion of disinfectant at 100 microm in the biofilm depth, indicating that ClO2 may not reach bacteria in a biofilm thicker than this using a 25 mg/l solution.

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Intentional contamination of drinking water with anthrax spores is a concern to water utilities. The spores may become embedded in the distribution pipe corrosion and biofilm, where they will be protected from residual disinfectants. This paper compares the disinfection effectiveness of chlorine and chlorine dioxide on Bacillus globigii , a surrogate for B. anthracis . Batch experiments were performed using both disinfectants. Data was analyzed using the delayed Chick-Watson model to determine the corresponding CTlag (CT = concentration  ×  time) values and Watson plots, which indicate the dominant factors affecting disinfection kinetics. Chlorine dioxide had CTlag values almost one tenth of those observed for chlorine. However, Watson plots showed that exposure time and disinfectant concentrations have equal weights on the inactivation rate of both disinfectants.